i'V 


UNIVERSITY  OF   CALIFORNIA 


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COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


COMMERCIAL 
GEOGRAPHY 

a  book  for  high  schools 

Commercial  Courses,  and 

Business  Colleges 


BY 


JACQUES  W.    REDWAY,   F.R.G.S. 

Author  of  "A  Series  of  Geographies,"  "An  Elementary 
Physical  Geography,"  "The  New  Basis  of  Geography" 


CHARLES  SCRIBNER'S  SONS 
NEW  YORK:::::::;::;:::::;:1903 


H  Fiozs 
RS 


Copyright,  1903,  by 
JACQUES  W.  REDWAY 


TROW  DIRECTORY 

PRINTING  AND   BOOKBINDING  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 


cue 


PREFACE 

The  quiet  industrial  struggle  through  which  the  United 
States  passed  during  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century  cannot  fail  to  impress  the  student  of  political 
economy  with  the  fact  that  commercial  revolution  is  a 
normal  result  of  industrial  evolution.  Within  a  period  of 
twenty-five  years  the  transportation  of  commodities  has 
grown  to  be  not  only  a  science,  but  a  power  in  the  better- 
ment of  civil  and  political  life  as  well ;  and  the  world, 
which  in  the  time  of  M.  Jules  Verne  was  eighty  days 
wide,  is  now  scarcely  forty. 

The  invention  of  the  Bessemer  process  for  making  steel 
was  intended  primarily  to  give  the  railway-operator  a 
track  that  should  be  free  from  the  defects  of  the  soft, 
wrought-iron  rail ;  in  fact,  however,  it  created  new  indus- 
trial centres  all  over  the  world  and  brought  Asia  and 
Africa  under  commercial  conquest.  The  possibilities  of 
increased  trade  between  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  the 
Pacific  Coast  States  led  to  the  building  of  the  Northern 
Pacific  and  Great  Northern  Kailways.  But  when  these 
were  thoroughly  organized,  there  unexpectedly  resulted  a 
new  trade-route  that  already  is  drawing  traffic  away  from 
the  Suez  Canal  and  landing  it  at  Asian  shores  by  way  of 
the  ports  of  Puget  Sound.  It  is  a  repetition  of  the  ad- 
justment that  occurred  when  the  opening  of  the  Cape 
route  to  India  transferred  the  trade  that  had  gathered 
about  Venice  and  Genoa  to  the  shores  of  the  North  and 
Baltic  Seas. 

In  other  words,  a  new  order  of  things  has  come  about, 


54.U73 


VI  PREFACE 

and  the  world  and  the  people  therein  are  readjusting 
themselves  to  the  requirements  made  upon  them  by  com- 
merce. And  so  at  the  beginning  of  a  new  century,  civil- 
ized man  is  drawing  upon  all  the  rest  of  the  world  to 
satisfy  his  wants,  and  giving  to  all  the  world  in  return ;  he 
is  civilized  because  of  this  interchange  and  not  in  spite 
of  it. 

The  necessity  for  instruction  in  a  subject  that  pertains 
so  closely  to  the  welfare  of  a  people  is  apparent,  and  an 
apology  for  presenting  this  manual  is  needless.  More- 
over, it  should  not  interfere  in  any  way  with  the  regular 
course  in  geography;  indeed,  more  comprehensive  work 
in  the  latter  is  becoming  imperative,  and  it  should  be 
enriched  rather  than  curtailed. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  work,  I  wish  to  express  my 
appreciation  of  the  great  assistance  of  Principal  Myron  T. 
Pritchard,  Edward  Everett  School,  Boston,  Mass.  I  am 
also  much  indebted  to  the  map-engraving  department  of 
Messrs.  The  Matthews-Northrup  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

J.  W.  K. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.   General  Principles .  1 

II.  How  Commerce  Civilized  Mankind    ....  7 

III.  Topographic  Control  of  Commerce   ....  17 

IV.  Climatic  Control  of  Commerce          .        .  29 

V.  Transportation — Ocean  and  Inland  Navigation       .  40 

VI.  Transportation — Railways  and  Railway   Organiza- 
tion ;  Public  Highways 62 

VII.  Factors  in  the  Location  of  Cities  and  Towns        .  81 

VIII.  The  Cereals  and  Grasses 88 

IX.  Textile  Fibres 105 

X.  Plant  Products  of  Economic  Use — Beverages  and 

Medicinal  Substances 127 

XI.  Gums  and  Resins  Used  in  the  Arts  ....  141 

XII.  Coal  and  Petroleum 147 

XIII.  Metals  of  the  Arts  and  Sciences    ....  159 

XIV.  Sugar  and  its  Commerce 185 

XV.  Forests  and  Forest  Products 193 

XVI.  Sea  Products  and  Furs 203 

XVII.  The  United  States — The  Seaports  and  the  Atlan- 
tic Coast-Plain 211 

XVIII.  The  United    States — The    New  England    Plateau 

and  the  Appalachian  Region          ....  219 

XIX.  The  United  States — The  Basin  of  the  Great  Lakes 

and  the  Mississippi  Valley 227 

vii 


Vlll  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XX.  The  United  States — The  Western  Highlands  and 

Territorial  Possessions 247 


261 
267 
275 

285 
295 


XXI.  Canada  and  Newfoundland     . 

XXII.  Mexico — Central  America — West  Indies 

XXIII.  South  America— The  Andean  States     . 

XXIV.  South  America — The  Lowland  States  . 
XXV.  Europe— Great  Britain  and  Germany  . 

XXVI.  Europe— The  Baltic  and  North  Sea  States         .     310 

XXVII.  Europe  —  The  Mediterranean  States  and  Switzer- 
land        .     320 

XXVIII.  Europe— The  Danube  and  Balkan  States     .         .  335 

XXIX.  Europe-Asia — The  Russian  Empire         .         .         .  343 

XXX.  The  Iran  Plateau  and  Arabia       .         .         .         .  349 

XXXI.   British  India  and  the  East  Indies        .        ,         .  358 

XXXII.  China  and  Japan 367 

XXXIII.  Africa 381 

XXXIV.  Oceania 391 

APPENDIX 398 

INDEX    .        .        . 399 


60°     Longitude      90°    East       from   120°    Greenwich    150° 

I  i    ?      i  | —        i  i   ,     n  |  i  i  | 


COLORED  MAPS 

PAGE 

Principal  Transportation   Lines  and  Regions  of   Largest 

Commerce  ........  x,  xi 

Mean  Annual  Rainfall 28 

City  of  New  York  and  Vicinity,  with  Harbor  Approaches  49 

Distribution  of  Vegetation 80 

Physical  Map  of  the  United  States 210 

Puget  Sound 253 

Mexico 268 

South  America 274 

British  Isles 299 

Germany  and  Scandinavian  Countries    .         .         ,         .         .  304 

Eussian  Empire         .         .         , 342 

Eastern  China  , 369 

Japan  and  Korea 375 

Africa 382 

The  Commerce  of  the  Pacific 393 


To  the  Teacher  :— The  contents  of  this  book  are  so  topicalized 
and  arranged  that,  if  the  time  for  the  study  is  limited,  a  short  course  may 
be  selected.  Under  no  circumstances,  however,  should  Chapters  V,  VI, 
VIII,  IX,  XII,  and  XIII  be  omitted.  A  casual  inspection  of  the  questions 
at  the  end  of  each  chapter  will  serve  to  show  that  they  cannot  be  answered 
from  the  pages  of  the  book,  and  they  have  been  selected  with  this  idea  in 
view.  They  are  intended  first  of  all  to  stimulate  individual  thought,  and 
secondly  to  encourage  the  pupil  to  investigate  the  topics  by  consulting 
original  sources.  The  practice  of  corresponding  with  pupils  in  other  parts 
of  the  world  cannot  be  too  highly  commended. 

The  following  list  represents  a  minimum  rather  tban  a  maximum 
reference  library.  It  may  be  enlarged  at  the  judgment  of  the  teacher. 
A  good  atlas  and  a  cyclopaedia  are  also  necessary. 

Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States.  Wright.  Charles  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons. 

History  of  Commerce  in  Europe.    Gibbins.    The  Macmillan  Company. 

Discovery  of  America.     Fiske.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  New  Empire.     Adams.     The  Macmillan  Company. 

Statesman's  Year-Book.     Keltie.     The  Macmillan  Company. 

Outlines  of  Political  Science.   Gunton  and  Robbins.    D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

The  Wheat  Problem.     Crookes.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

South  America.     Carpenter.     American  Book  Company. 

From  the  Bureau  of  Statistics,  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington, 
D.  C,  the  following  monographs  may  be  procured  :  * 

Commercial  China.  American  Commerce.  Commercial  Australia. 
Commercial  Japan.  Commercial  Africa.  Commercial  India. 
Statistical  Abstract.  Great  Canals  of  the  World.  World's  Sugar 
Production  and  Consumption. 

The  following  from  the  Department  of  Agriculture  is  necessary : 

Check  List  of  Forest  Trees  of  the  United  States. 

Lantern  slides  illustrating  the  subjects  treated  in  this  book  may  be 
procured  from  T.  H.  McAllister,  49  Nassau  Street,  New  York.  Stereo- 
scopic views  may  be  obtained  from  Underwood  &  Underwood,  Fifth  Ave- 
nue and  Nineteenth  Street,  New  York. 

•  If  the  edition  for  free  distribution  is  exhausted,  these  may  be  purchased  from  the 
Superintendent  of  Documents,  Public  Printer,  Washington,  D.  C. 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTEK  I 
GENERAL  PRINCIPLES 

Commerce  and  modern  civilization  go  hand  in  hand,  and 
the  history  of  the  one  is  the  history  of  the  other ;  and 
whatever  may  be  the  basis  of  civilization,  commerce  has 
been  the  chief  agent  by  which  it  has  been  spread  through- 
out the  world.  Peoples  who  receive  nothing  from  their 
fellow-men,  and  who  give  nothing  in  return,  are  usually 
but  little  above  a  savage  state.  Civilized  man  draws  upon 
all  the  rest  of  the  world  for  what  he  requires,  and  gives  to 
the  rest  of  the  world  in  return.  He  is  civilized  because  of 
this  fact  and  not  in  spite  of  it. 

There  is  scarcely  a  country  in  the  world  that  does  not 
yield  something  or  other  to  civilized  peoples.  There 
is  scarcely  a  household  whose  furnishings  and  contents 
do  not  represent  an  aggregate  journey  of  several  times 
around  the  earth.  A  family  in  New  York  at  breakfast 
occupy  chairs  from  Grand  Kapids,  Mich.;  they  partake 
of  bread  made  of  wheat  from  Minnesota,  and  meat  from 
Texas  prepared  in  a  range  made  in  St.  Louis;  coffee 
grown  in  Sumatra  or  Java,  or  tea  from  China  is  served  in 
cups  made  in  Japan,  sweetened  with  sugar  from  Cuba, 
stirred  with  spoons  of  silver  from  Nevada.  Spices  from 
Africa,  South  America,  and  Asia  season  the  food,  which 
is  served  on  a  table  of  New  Hampshire  oak,  covered  with 

1 


2  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

a  linen  spread  made  from  flax  grown  in  Ireland  or  in 
Russia.  Rugs  from  Bokhara,  or  from  Baluchistan,  cover 
the  floors ;  portieres  made  in  Constantinople  hang  at  the 
doors  ;  and  the  room  is  heated  with  coal  from  Pennsylvania 
that  burns  in  a  furnace  made  in  Rhode  Island. 

,  Now  all  these  things  may  be,  and  usually  are,  found  in 
the  great  majority  of  families  in  the  United  States  or 
Europe,  and  most  of  them  will  be  found  in  nearly  all 
households.  Certain  it  is  that  peoples  do  exist  who,  from 
the  immediate  vicinity  in  which  they  live,  procure  all  the 
things  they  use  or  consume.  In  the  main,  however,  such 
peoples  are  savages. 

A  moment's  thought  will  make  it  clear  that  before  an 
ordinary  meal  can  be  served  there  must  be  railways, 
steamships,  great  manufacturing  establishments,  iron  quar- 
ries, and  coal  mines,  aggregating  many  thousand  millions 
of  dollars,  and  employing  many  million  people.  A  casual 
inspection,  too,  reveals  the  fact  that  all  of  the  substances 
and  things  required  by  mankind  come  from  the  earth,  and, 
a  very  few  excepted,  every  one  requires  a  certain  amount 
of  manufacture  or  preliminary  treatment  before  it  is 
usable.  The  grains  and  nearly  all  the  other  food-stuffs 
require  various  processes  of  preparation  before  they  are 
ready  for  consumption  by  civilized  peoples.  Iron  and 
the  various  other  ores  used  in  the  arts  must  undergo  elab- 
orate processes  of  manufacture ;  coal  must  be  mined, 
broken,  cleaned,  and  transported  ;  the  soil  in  which  food- 
stuffs are  grown  must  be  fertilized  and  mechanically  pre- 
pared ;  and  even  the  water  required  for  domestic  purposes 
in  many  instances  must  be  transported  long  distances. 

A  little  thought  will  suffice  to  show  that  not  only  are 
all  food-stuffs  derived  from  the  earth,  but  that  also  every 
usable  resource  which  constitutes  wealth  is  also  drawn 
from  the   same  source.     The   same  is  also  pretty  nearly 


4  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

true  of  the  various  forms  of  energy,  for  although  the  sun 
is  the  real  source  of  light  and  heat,  and  probably  of  elec- 
tricity, these  agents  are  usable  only  when  they  have  been 
transformed  into  earth  energies.  Thus,  the  physical  en- 
ergy generated  by  falling  water  is  merely  a  transformed 
portion  of  solar  heat ;  so  also  the  coal-beds  contain  both 
the  chemical  and  physical  energy  of  solar  heat  and  light 
converted  into  potential  energy — that  is,  into  force  that 
can  be  used  at  the  will  of  intelligence.  Indeed,  the 
physical  being  of  mankind  is  an  organism  born  of  the 
earth,  and  adapted  to  the  earth ;  and  when  that  physical 
form  dies,  it  merely  is  transformed  again  to  ordinary  earth 
substances. 

The  chief  activities  of  living  beings  are  those  relat 
ing  to  the  maintenance  of  life.  In  other  words,  animals 
must  feed,  and  they  must  also  protect  themselves  against 
extermination.  In  the  case  of  all  other  animals  this  is  a 
very  simple  matter,  they  simply  live  in  immediate  contact 
with  their  food,  migrating  or  perishing  if  the  supply  gives 
out.  In  the  case  of  mankind  the  conditions  are  different 
and  vastly  more  elaborate.  Savage  peoples  excepted,  man 
does  not  live  within  close  touch  of  the  things  he  requires ; 
indeed,  he  cannot,  for  he  depends  upon  all  the  world  for 
what  he  uses.  In  a  less  enlightened  state  many  of  these 
commodities  were  luxuries ;  in  a  civilized  state  they  have 
become  necessities.  Moreover,  nearly  everything  civilized 
man  employs  has  been  prepared  by  processes  in  which 
heat  is  employed. 

Therefore  one  may  specify  several  classes  of  human  ac- 
tivities and  employments : 

(a)  The  production  of  food-stuffs  and  other  commodities 
by  the  cultivation  of  the  soil — Agriculture. 

(6)  The  preparation  of  food-stuffs  and  things  used  for 
shelter,  protection,  or  ornament — Manufacture, 


GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  0 

(c)  The  production  of  minerals  for  the  generation  of 
power,  such  as  coal,  or  those  such  as  iron,  copper, 
stone,  etc.,  required  in  the  arts  and  sciences — Min- 
ing. 

(d)  The  exchange  of  food  stuffs  and  commodities — Com- 
merce. 

(e)  The  transfer  of  commodities — Transportation. 

It  is  evident  that  the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  a 
people  depend  very  largely  on  the  condition  of  their  sur- 
roundings— that  is,  their  environment.  If  a  country  or  an 
inhabited  area  produces  all  the  food-stuffs  and  commodities 
required  by  its  people,  the  conditions  are  very  fortunate. 
A  very  few  nations,  notably  China  and  the  United  States, 
have  such  diverse  conditions  of  climate,  topography,  and 
mineral  resources,  that  they  can,  if  necessary,  produce 
within  their  national  borders  everything  needed  by  their 
peoples. 

The  prosecution  of  such  a  policy,  however,  is  rarely 
economical ;  in  the  history  of  the  past  it  has  always  re- 
sulted in  weakness  and  disintegration.  China  is  to-day 
helpless  because  of  a  policy  of  self-seclusion ;  and  the 
marvellous  growth  of  Japan  began  when  her  trade  was 
thrown  open  to  the  world. 

For  the  greater  part  the  environment  of  a  people  is 
deficient — that  is,  the  locality  of  a  people  does  not  yield 
all  that  is  required  for  the  necessities  of  life.  For  in- 
stance, the  New  England  plateau  requires  an  enormous 
amount  of  fuel  for  its  manufacturing  enterprises;  but 
practically  no  coal  is  found  within  its  borders ;  hence  the 
manufacturers  must  either  command  the  coal  to  be  shipped 
from  other  regions  or  give  up  their  employment.  The 
people  of  Canada  require  a  certain  amount  of  cotton  cloth ; 
but  the  cotton  plant  will  not  grow  in  a  cold  climate,  so 
they  must  either  exchange  some  of  their  own  commodities 


6  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

for  cotton,  or  else  go  without  it.  The  inhabitants  of  Great 
Britain  produce  only  a  small  part  of  the  food-stuffs  they 
consume ;  therefore  they  are  constantly  exchanging  their 
manufactured  products  for  the  food-stuffs  that  of  necessity 
must  be  produced  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

The  dwellers  of  the  New  England  plateau  might  grow 
the  bread-stuffs  they  require,  and  in  times  past  they  did 
so.  At  that  time,  however,  a  barrel  of  flour  was  worth 
twelve  dollars.  But  the  wheat  of  the  prairie  regions  can 
be  grown,  manufactured  into  flour,  transported  a  thousand 
miles,  and  sold  at  a  profit  for  less  than  five  dollars  a  barrel. 
Therefore  it  is  evidently  more  economical  to  buy  flour  in 
Minnesota  than  to  grow  the  wheat  and  make  it  into  flour 
in  Massachusetts. 

All  these  problems,  and  they  exist  without  number, 
show  that  man  may  overcome  most  of  the  obstacles  that 
surround  him.  So  we  find  civilized  man  living  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  world.  Tropical  regions  are  not  too 
scorching,  nor  are  arctic  fastnesses  too  cold  for  him.  In 
other  words,  because  of  commerce  and  transportation,  he 
can  and  usually  does  master  the  conditions  of  his  environ- 
ment ;  his  intelligence  enables  him  to  do  so,  and  his  ability 
to  do  so  is  the  result  of  the  intelligent  use  of  experience 
and  education. 


CHAPTEE    II 
HOW  COMMERCE   CIVILIZED   MANKIND 

The  history  of  western  civilization  is  so  closely  con- 
nected with  the  development  of  the  great  routes  of  travel 
and  the  growth  of  commerce  that  one  cannot  possibly 
separate  them.  Commerce  cannot  exist  without  the  inter- 
course of  peoples,  and  peoples  cannot  be  in  mutual  com- 
munication unless  each  learns  from  the  other. 

Feudalism. — When  the  Roman  Empire  fell  civilization 
in  western  Europe  was  not  on  a  high  plane ;  indeed, 
the  feudalism  that  followed  was  not  much  above  barbar- 
ism. The  people  Avere  living  in  a  manner  that  was  not 
very  much  unlike  the  communal  system  under  which  the 
serfs  of  Russia  lived  only  a  few  years  ago.  Each  centre 
of  population  was  a  sort  of  military  camp  governed  by 
a  feudal  lord.  The  followers  and  retainers  were  scarcely 
better  off  than  slaves ;  indeed,  many  of  them  were  slaves. 
There  was  no  ownership  of  the  land  except  by  the  feudal 
lords,  and  the  latter  were  responsible  for  their  acts  to 
the  king  only. 

But  very  few  people  cared  to  be  absolutely  free,  because 
they  had  but  little  chance  to  protect  themselves  ;  so  it  wras 
the  common  custom  to  attach  one's  self  to  a  feudal  lord  in 
order  to  have  his  protection ;  even  a  sort  of  peonage  or 
slavery  under  him  was  better  than  no  protection  at  all. 
A  few  of  the  people  were  engaged  in  trade  and  manufact- 
ure of  some  kind  or  other,  and  they  were  the  only  ones 
through  whom  the  feudal  lord  could  supply  himself  with 

7 


8  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

the  commodities  needed  for  his  retainers  and  the  luxuries 
necessary  to  himself. 

Each  feudal  estate,  therefore,  became  a  sort  of  industrial 
centre  by  itself,  producing  its  own  food-stuffs  and  much  of 
the  coarser  manufactures.  It  was  not  a  very  high  condi- 
tion of  enlightenment,  but  it  was  much  better  than  the 
one  which  preceded  it,  for  at  least  it  offered  protection. 
It  encouraged  a  certain  amount  of  trade  and  commerce, 
because  the  feudal  lord  had  many  wants,  and  he  was 
usually  willing  to  protect  the  merchant  who  supplied 
them. 

The  Crusades  and  Commerce. — The  Crusades,  or 
wars  by  which  the  Christians  sought  to  recover  the  Holy 
Land  from  the  Turk,  resulted  in  a  trade  between  Europe 
and  India  that  grew  to  wonderful  proportions.  Silk  fab- 
rics, cotton  cloth,  precious  stones,  ostrich  plumes,  ivory, 
spices,  and  drugs — all  of  which  were  practically  unknown 
in  Europe — were  eagerly  sought  by  the  nobility  and  their 
dependencies.  In  return,  linen  and  woollen  fabrics,  leather 
goods,  glassware,  blacklead,  and  steel  implements  were 
carried  to  the  far  East. 

Milan,  Florence,  Venice  and  Genoa,  Constantinople  and 
a  number  of  less  important  towns  along  the  Mediterranean 
basin  became  important  trade  centres,  but  Venice  and 
Genoa  grew  to  be  world  powers  in  commerce.  Not  only 
were  they  great  receiving  and  distributing  depots  of  trade, 
but  they  were  great  manufacturing  centres  as  well. 

The  routes  over  which  this  enormous  commerce  was  car- 
ried were  few  in  number.  For  the  greater  part,  the  Vene- 
tian trade  went  to  Alexandria,  and  thence  by  the  Ked  Sea 
to  India.  Genoese  merchants  sent  their  goods  to  Constan- 
tinople and  Trebizond,  thence  down  the  Tigris  River  to 
the  Persian  Gulf  and  to  India.  There  was  also  another 
route  that  had  been  used  by  the  Phoenicians.     It  extended 


HOW   COMMERCE   CIVILIZED   MANKIND  9 

from  Tyre  through  Damascus  and  Palmyra  *  to  the  head 
of  the  Persian  Gulf ;  this  gradually  fell  into  disuse  after 
the  founding  of  Alexandria. 

The  general  effects  of  this  trade  were  very  far-reaching. 
To  the  greater  number  of  the  people  of  Europe,  the  coun- 
tries of  India,  China,  and  Japan  were  mythical.  Accord- 
ing to  tradition  they  were  infested  with  dragons  and 
gryphons,  and  peopled  by  dog-headed  folk  or  by  one- 
eyed  Arimaspians.  About  the  first  real  information  of 
them  to  be  spread  over  Europe  was  brought  by  Marco 
Polo,  whose  father  and  uncle  had  travelled  all  through 
these  countries  during  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  t  Marco  Polo's  writings  were  very  widely  read, 
and  influenced  a  great  many  people  who  could  not  be 
reached  through  the  ordinary  channels  of  commerce.  So 
between  the  wars  of  the  Crusades  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  growth  of  commerce  on  the  other,  a  new  and  a  better 
civilization  began  to  spread  over  Europe. 

The  Turkish  Invasions.— But  the  magnificent  trade 
that  had  thus  grown  up  was  checked  for  a  time  by  an  un- 
foreseen factor.  The  half-savage  Turkomans  living  south- 
east of  Kussia  had  become  converted  to  the  religion  of 
Islam,  and  in  their  zeal  for  the  new  belief,  determined  to 
destroy  the  commerce  which  seemed  to  be  connected  with 
Christianity.  So  they  moved  in  upon  the  borderland  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia,  and  one  after  another  the  trade 
routes  were  tightly  closed.  Then  they  captured  Constanti- 
nople, and  the  routes  between  Genoa  and  the  Orient  were 

*  The  greatness  of  Palmyra  was  due  to  the  trade  along  this  route,  and  its 
decay  began  when  the  route  was  abandoned.  The  present  town  of  Tad- 
mor  is  near  the  ruins  of  the  former  city. 

t  Cosmas  Indicopleustes — in  early  life  a  merchant,  in  later  years  a  monk 
— visited  India  and  Ceylon  during  the  first  part  of  the  sixth  century.  His 
writings  contain  much  valuable  knowledge,  but  in  the  main  they  are  theo- 
logical arguments  intended  to  disprove  the  Geography  written  by  Ptolemy. 


10 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


hermetically  sealed.  Moslem  power  also  spread  over  Syria 
and  Egypt,  and  so,  little  by  little,  the  trade  of  Yenice  was 
throttled. 

Now  a  commerce  that  involved  not  only  many  millions 
of  dollars,  but  the  employment  of  thousands  of  people  as 


Venetian  Routes 
Genoese  Routes 


SCALE  OF  MILES. 


ROUTES   TO    INDIA— 
THE   TURK   CHANGES    THE   COMMERCE   OF   THE    WORLD 

well,  is  not  likely  to  be  given  up  without  a  struggle.  So 
the  energy  that  had  been  devoted  to  this  great  trade  was 
turned  in  a  new  direction,  and  there  began  a  search  for  a 
new  route  to  India— one  that  the  Turks  could  not  blockade. 
The  Search  for  an  All-Water  Route  to  India.— 
Overland  routes  were  out  of  the  question;  there  were 
none  that  could  be  made  available,  and  so  the  search  was 


HOW   COMMERCE   CIVILIZED    MANKIND  11 

made  for  a  sea-route.  Rather  singularly  the  Yenetiaus  and 
Genoese,  who  had  hitherto  controlled  this  trade,  took  no 
part  in  the  search ;  it  was  conducted  by  the  Spanish  and 
the  Portuguese. 

The  Spanish  monarchs,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of 
Castile,  fitted  out  an  expedition  under  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, a  master-mariner  and  cartographer,  the  funds  being 
provided  by  Isabella,  who  pledged  her  private  property 
as  security  for  the  cost  of  the  expedition.  This  expedi- 
tion resulted  in  the  discovery,  October  10-21,  1492,  of  the 
West  India  Islands.  In  a  subsequent  voyage,  Columbus 
discovered  the  mainland  of  South  America. 

Even  before  the  voyage  of  Columbus,  the  Portuguese 
had  been  trying  to  find  a  way  around  Africa  to  India,  and 
Pope  Eugenius  IV.  had  conferred  on  Portugal  "  all  heathen 
lands  from  Cape  Bojador  eastward  even  to  the  Indies." 
Little  by  little,  therefore,  Portuguese  navigators  were  push- 
ing southward  until,  in  1487,  Bartholomew  Dias  sighted 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  got  about  as  far  as  Algoa  Bay. 
Then  he  unwillingly  turned  back  because  of  the  threats  of 
his  crew.  It  was  a  most  remarkable  voyage,  and  one  of 
the  shipmates  of  Dias  was  Bartholomew  Columbus,  a 
brother  of  the  discoverer  of  the  New  World. 

Ten  years  later,  or  five  years  after  the  voyage  of  Colum- 
bus, Vasco  da  Gama  sailed  from  Lisbon  for  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  As  he  passed  the  Cape  he  was  terribly  storm- 
tossed,  but  the  storms  carried  him  in  a  fortunate  direction. 
And  when  at  last  he  got  his  reckonings,  he  was  off  the 
coast  of  India;  he  therefore  kept  along  the  coast  until  in 
sight  of  a  port.  The  port  was  the  well-known  city  of  Cal- 
icut. Two  years  later  he  returned  to  Europe  by  the  same 
route,  his  ships  laden  with  spices,  precious  stones,  beauti- 
ful tapestries  and  brocades,  ivory  and  bronzes.  The  long- 
sought  sea-route  to  India  had  been  discovered. 


HOW   COMMERCE   CIVILIZED   MANKIND  13 

Commerce  in  Western  Europe. — After  the  discov- 
ery of  the  new  route,  Venice  and  Genoa  were  scarcely  heard 
of  in  relation  to  commerce ;  they  lost  everything  and 
gained  nothing.  The  great  commerce  with  the  Orient  was 
to  have  a  new  western  torminus,  and  the  latter  was  to  be 
on  the  shores  of  the  North  and  Baltic  Seas. 

The  commerce  between  Europe  and  India  stimulated 
trade  in  western  Europe  as  well.  As  early  as  the  twelfth 
century  the  manufacture  of  linen  and  woollen  cloth  had 
grown  to  be  a  very  important  industry  that  had  resulted  in 
the  rapid  growth  of  population.  The  older  cities  grew 
rapidly,  and  new  ones  sprang  up  wherever  the  commodities 
of  trade  were  gathered,  manufactured,  or  distributed. 

These  centres  of  trade  had  two  hostile  elements  against 
them.  The  feudal  lords  used  to  pillage  them  legally  by 
extorting  heavy  taxes  and  forced  loans  whenever  their 
treasuries  were  empty.  The  portionless  brothers  and 
relatives  of  the  feudal  lords,  to  whom  no  employments 
save  war,  adventure,  and  piracy  were  open,  pillaged  them 
illegally.  Along  the  coasts  especially,  piracy  was  consid- 
ered not  only  a  legitimate,  but  a  genteel,  profession.  So 
in  order  to  protect  themselves,  the  cities  began  to  join 
themselves  into  leagues. 

The  Hanse  League. — About  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  *  Hamburg  and  Liibeck  formed  an  alli- 
ance afterward  called  a  hansa ;  at  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century  it  embraced  seventy  cities,  having  the 
capital  at  Liibeck.  At  the  time  of  its  greatest  power  the 
League  embraced  all  the  principal  cities  of  western  Europe 
nearly  as  far  south  as  the  Danube.  Large  agencies,  called 
"  factories,"  were  established  in  London,  Bruges,  Novgorod, 
Bergen,  and  Wisby.  The  influence  of  the  League  practi- 
cally controlled  western  Europe. 

*  The  date  is  variously  given  as  1169,  1200,  and  1241. 


14 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


The  Hanse  League  performed  a  wonderful  work.  It 
stopped  piracy  on  the  seas  and  robbery  on  the  land.  In- 
dustrially, it  encouraged  self-government  and  obedience  to 
constitutional  authority.  Shipbuilding  and  navigation  so 
greatly  improved  that  the  ocean  traffic  resulting  from  the 
discovery  of  the  cape  route  to  India  quickly  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Hanse  sailors  and  master-mariners.    The  League 


HANSE  ROUTES— 
THE  HANSE  LEAGUE  REORGANIZES  THE  TRADE  OF  THE  WORLD 


not  only  encouraged  and  protected  all  sorts  of  manufact- 
ures, but  its  schools  trained  thousands  of  operatives.  The 
mines  were  worked  and  the  idle  land  cultivated.  It  was 
the  greatest  industrial  movement  that  ever  occurred. 

Socially,  the  Hanse  League  brought  the  wealth  that  gave 
those  comforts  and  conveniences  before  unknown.  The 
standards  of  social  life,  education,  art,  and  science  were 


HOW   COMMERCE   CIVILIZED   MANKIND  15 

raised  from  a  condition  scarcely  better  than  barbarism  to 
a  high  plane  of  civilization.  Indeed,  the  civilization  of 
western  Europe  was  the  most  important  result  of  it. 

It  forced  the  rights  of  individual  freedom,  as  well  as  mu- 
nicipal independence,  from  more  than  one  monarch,  and 
punished  severely  the  kings  who  sought  to  betray  it.  It 
crushed  the  power  of  those  who  opposed  it,*  and  rewarded 
those  who  were  faithful  to  it.  Its  most  important  mission, 
however,  was  the  overthrow  of  feudalism  and  the  gradual 
substitution  of  popular  government  in  its  place. 

Having  accomplished  the  regeneration  of  Europe,  the 
Hanse  League  died  partly  by  its  own  hand,  because  of  its 
arrogance,  but  mainly  from  the  fact  that,  having  educated 
western  Europe  to  self-government  and  commercial  inde- 
pendence, there  was  no  longer  need  for  its  existence.  In- 
dependent cities  grew  rapidly  into  importance,  and  these 
got  along  very  well  without  the  protection  of  the  League. 
The  great  industrial  progress  was  at  times  temporarily 
checked  by  wars,  but  it  never  took  a  backward  step.  In- 
deed the  progress  of  commerce  has  always  been  a  contest 
between  brains  and  brute  force,  and  in  such  a  struggle 
there  is  never  any  doubt  about  the  final  outcome. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DISCUSSION 

What  were  some  of  the  effects  of  Caesar's  invasion  of  Germanic 
Europe  so  far  as  commerce  is  concerned  ? 

What  were  some  of  the  effects  on  commerce  of  the  breaking  up 
of  the  Roman  Empire  ? 

How  did  the  invasion  of  England  by  William  of  Normandy 
affect  the  commerce  of  the  English  people  ? 

Who  was  Henry  the  Navigator,  and  what  did  he  accomplish  ? 

How  did  the  blockade  of  the  routes  between  Europe  and  India 
bring  about  the  discovery  of  America  ? 

*  To  Waldemar  III.  of  Denmark  it  dictated  terms  that  made  its  power 
in  Scandinavia  supreme. 


16  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

What  was  the  result  of  the  great  voyage  of  the  Cabots  ? 

Was  the  overthrow  of  feudalism  in  Europe  a  gain  or  a  loss  to 
commerce  ? 

Why  are  not  commercial  leagues,  such  as  the  Hanse,  necessary 
at  the  present  time  ? 

Why  did  Spain's  commerce  decline  as  Portugal's  thrived  ? 

COLLATERAL    READING* 

Gibbins's  History  of  Commerce— Chapters  IV  -V. 
Fiske's  Discovery  of  America,  Vol.  I — Chapters  IV- V. 

*  For  a  complete  list  of  books  for  reference,  see  p.  xil 


CHAPTEK   III 
TOPOGRAPHIC   CONTROL   OF   COMMERCE 

The  great  industry  of  commerce,  which  includes  both 
the  trade  in  the  commodities  of  life  and  the  transportation 
of  them,  is  governed  very  largely  by  the  character  of  the 
earth's  surface.  But  very  few  food-staffs  can  be  grown 
economically  in  mountain-regions.  Steep  mountain-slopes 
are  apt  to  be  destitute  of  soil ;  moreover,  even  the  mountain- 
valleys  are  apt  to  be  difficult  of  access,  and  in  such  cases 
the  cost  of  moving  the  crops  may  be  greater  than  the  mar- 
ket value  of  the  products.  Mountainous  countries,  there- 
fore, are  apt  to  be  sparsely  peopled  regions. 

But  although  the  great  mountain-systems  are  unhabitable, 
or  at  least  sparsely  peopled,  they  have  a  very  definite  place 
in  the  economics  of  life.  Thus,  the  great  western  highland 
of  the  United  States  diverts  the  flow  of  moisture  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  northward  into  the  central  plain,  and  gives 
to  the  region  most  of  its  food-growing  power.  In  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  moisture  intercepted  by  the  Alps  and  the 
Himalayas  has  not  only  created  the  plains  of  the  Po  and 
the  Ganges  from  the  rock-waste  carried  from  the  slopes, 
but  has  also  made  them  exceedingly  fertile. 

Mountain-ranges  are  also  valuable  for  their  contents. 
The  broken  condition  of  the  rock-folds  and  the  rapid 
weathering  to  which  they  are  subjected  have  exposed  the 
minerals  and  metals  so  useful  in  the  arts  of  commerce  and 
civilization.  Thus,  the  weathering  of  the  Appalachian  folds 
has  made  accessible  about  the  only  available  anthracite 
coal  measures  yet  worked ;  and  the  worn  folds  about  Lake 

17 


18  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Superior  have  yielded  the  ores  that  have  made  the  United 
States  the  foremost  copper  and  steel  manufacturing  country 
of  the  world.  Gold,  silver,  tin,  lead,  zinc,  platinum,  gran- 
ite, slate,  and  marble  occur  mainly  in  mountain-folds. 

Mountains  and  Valleys. — Mountain-ranges  are  great 
obstacles  to  commerce  and  intercommunication.  The 
Greek  peoples  found  it  much  easier  to  scatter  along  the 
Mediterranean  coast  than  to  cross  the  Balkan  Mountains. 
For  twenty  years  after  the  settlement  of  California,  it  was 
easier  and  less  expensive  to  send  traffic  by  way  of  Cape 
Horn  than  to  carry  it  across  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  deep  canons  of  mountainous  regions  are  quite  as 
difficult  to  overcome  as  the  high  ranges.  In  modern  meth- 
ods of  transportation  a  range  that  cannot  be  surmounted 
may  be  tunnelled,  and  a  tunnel  five  or  six  miles  in  length  is 
no  uncommon  feat  of  engineering.  A  canon,  however,  can- 
not be  tunnelled,  and  if  too  wide  for  cantilever  or  suspen- 
sion bridges,  a  detour  of  many  miles  is  necessary.  In 
crossing  a  deep  chasm  the  route  of  transportation  may 
aggregate  ten  or  fifteen  times  the  distance  spanned  by  a 
straight  line. 

Excepting  the  mining  regions,  the  population  of  moun- 
tainous countries  is  apt  to  be  found  mainly  in  the  inter- 
montane  valleys.  A  reason  for  this  is  not  hard  to  find  ; 
the  valleys  are  usually  filled  with  rich  soil  brought  from 
the  higher  slopes  and  levelled  by  the  water.  The  popu- 
lation, therefore,  is  concentrated  in  the  valley  because  of  the 
food-producing  power  of  the  land.  For  this  reason  the 
Sound,  Willamette,  and  San  Joaquin-Sacramento  Valleys 
contain  the  chief  part  of  the  Pacific  coast  population.  The 
Shenandoah  and  the  Great  Valley  of  Virginia  are  similar 
instances. 

What  is  true  of  the  larger  intermontane  valleys  is  true 
also  of  the  narrow  stream  valleys  of  mountain  and  plateau 


TOPOGRAPHIC  CONTROL  OF  COMMERCE  19 

regions.  Thus,  in  the  New  England  plateau  the  chief 
growth  during  the  past  forty  years  has  been  in  the  valley 
lands.  In  that  time  if  the  uplands  have  not  suffered  act- 
ual loss,  they  certainly  have  made  no  material  gains.  Up- 
land farming  has  not  proved  a  remunerative  venture,  and 
many  of  the  farms  have  either  been  abandoned  or  con- 
verted to  other  uses. 

Passes.— Transverse  valleys  form  very  important  topo- 
graphic features  of  mountain-regions.  Inasmuch  as  the 
ranges  themselves  are  obstacles  to  communication,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  latter  must  be  concentrated  at  such  cross 
valleys  or  gaps  as  may  be  traversed.  Khaibar  Pass,  a 
narrow  defile  in  the  Hindu  Kush  Mountains,  between 
Peshawur  and  Jelalabad,  for  many  years  was  the  chief 
gateway  between  Europe  and  India.  Even  now  the  cost 
of  holding  it  is  an  enormous  tax  upon  England. 

Brenner,  St.  Gotthard,  and  the  Mont  Cenis  Passes  are 
about  the  only  land  channels  of  commerce  between  Italy 
and  transalpine  Europe,  and  most  of  the  communication 
between  northern  Italy  and  the  rest  of  Europe  is  carried 
on  by  means  of  these  passes.  Every  transcontinental  rail- 
way of  the  American  continent  crosses  the  various  high- 
lands by  means  of  gaps  and  passes,  and  some  of  them 
would  never  have  been  built  were  it  not  for  the  existence 
of  the  passes.  Fremont,  South,  and  Marshall  Passes  have 
been  of  historic  importance  for  half  a  century  t 

The  Hudson  and  Champlain  Valley  played  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  history  of  the  colonies  a  century  before  the 
existence  of  the  United  States,  and  its  importance  as  a 
gateway  to  eastern  Canada  is  not  likely  to  be  lessened. 
The  Mohawk  gap  was  the  first  practical  route  to  be  main- 
tained between  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  the  food-produc- 
ing region  of  the  Great  Central  Plain.  It  is  to-day  the 
most  important  one.     It  is  so  nearly  level  that  the  total 


TOPOGRAPHIC   CONTROL  OF   COMMERCE  21 

lift  of  freight  going  from  Buffalo  to  tide-water  is  less  than 
five  hundred  feet. 

Rivers. — River- valleys  are  closely  connected  with  the 
economic  development  of  a  country.  Navigable  rivers  are 
free  and  open  highways  of  communication.  In  newly 
settled  countries  the  river  is  always  the  least  expensive 
means  of  carriage,  and  often  it  is  the  only  one  available  for 
the  transportation  of  heavy  goods. 

In  late  years,  since  the  railway  has  become  the  chief 
means  for  the  transportation  of  commodities,  river  trans- 
portation has  greatly  declined.  The  river- valley,  however, 
has  lost  none  of  its  importance ;  in  most  instances  it  is  a 
naturally  levelled  and  graded  route,  highly  suitable  for  the 
tracks  of  the  railway.  As  a  result,  outside  of  the  level 
lands  of  the  Great  Central  Plain,  not  far  from  eighty  per 
cent,  of  the  railway  mileage  of  the  United  States  is  con- 
structed along  river-valleys. 

Plateaus. — Plateaus  are  usually  characterized  by  broken 
and  more  or  less  rugged  surface  features.  As  a  rule  they 
are  deficient  in  the  amount  of  rainfall  necessary  to  pro- 
duce an  abundance  of  the  grains  and  similar  food-stuffs, 
although  this  is  by  no  means  the  case  with  all. 

Most  plateaus  produce  an  abundance  of  grass,  and  cattle- 
growing  is  therefore  an  important  industry  in  such  regions. 
Thus,  the  plateaus  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  famous  for 
cattle,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Mexican  and  the  South 
American  plateaus.  The  Iberian  plateau,  including  Spain 
and  Portugal,  is  noted  for  the  merino  sheep,  which  furnish 
the  finest  wool  known.  The  plateau  of  Iran  is  also  noted 
for  its  wool,  and  the  rugs  from  this  region  cannot  be  imi- 
tated elsewhere  in  the  world. 

Plains. — Plains  are  of  the  highest  importance  to  life  and 
its  activities.  Not  only  do  tney  present  fewer  obstacles  to 
intercommunication  than  any  other  topographic  features, 


22  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

but  almost  always  they  are  deeply  covered  with  the  fine 
rock-waste  that  forms  the  chief  components  of  soil. 
Plains,  therefore,  contain  the  elements  of  nutrition,  and  are 
capable  of  supporting  life  to  a  greater  extent  than  either 
mountains  or  plateaus.  About  ninety  per  cent,  of  the 
world's  population  dwell  in  the  lowland  plains. 

The  Great  Central  Plain  of  North  America  produces 
more  than  one-quarter  of  the  world's  wheat,  and  about 
four-fifths  of  the  corn.  The  southern  part  of  the  great 
Arctic  plain,  and  its  extension,  the  plains  of  the  Baltic 
also  yield  immense  quantities  of  grain  and  cattle  prod- 
ucts. The  coast-plains  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  both  the 
American  and  the  European  side,  are  highly  productive. 

River  flood-plains  are  almost  always  densely  peopled 
because  of  their  productivity.  The  bottom-lands  of  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Yangtze  Rivers  are  among  the  chief 
food-producing  regions  of  the  world.  Lacustrine  plains, 
the  beds  of  former  lakes,  are  also  highly  productive  re- 
gions. The  valley  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North  is  an 
example,  and  its  wheat  is  of  a  very  high  quality. 

Fertile  coast-plains  and  lowlands  that  are  adjacent  to 
good  harbors,  as  a  rule  are  the  most  thickly  peopled  re- 
gions of  the  world.  In  many  such  regions  the  density  of 
population  exceeds  two  hundred  or  more  per  square  mile. 
The  reason  is  obvious.  Life  seeks  that  environment  which 
yields  the  greatest  amount  of  nutrition  with  the  least  ex- 
penditure of  energy. 

The  study  of  a  good  relief  map  shows  that,  as  a  rule,  the 
Pacific  Ocean  is  bordered  by  a  rugged  highland,  which  has 
a  more  or  less  abrupt  slope,  and  a  narrow  coast-plain.  In- 
deed, the  latter  is  absent  for  the  greater  part.  The  slopes 
of  the  Atlantic,  on  the  other  hand,  are  long  and  gentle — 
being  a  thousand  miles  or  more  in  width  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  their  extent.     The  area  of  productive  land 


24  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

is  correspondingly  great,  and  the  character  of  the  surface 
features  is  such  that  intercommunication  is  easy. 

The  result  of  these  conditions  is  evident.  The  Atlantic 
slopes,  though  not  everywhere  the  most  densely  peopled 
areas,  contain  the  great  centres  of  the  world's  activities 
and  economies.  In  the  past  400  years  they  have  not  only 
overtaken  the  Pacific  coast  races,  but  have  far  surpassed 
them.  They  are  now  entering  upon  a  commercial  invasion 
of  the  Pacific  nations  that  is  resulting  in  a  reorganization 
of  the  entire  industrial  world. 

Topography  and  Trade  Routes. — As  the  settlement 
and  commerce  of  a  country  grow,  roads  succeed  trails,  and 
trails  are  apt  to  follow  the  paths  of  migrating  animals. 
Until  the  time  of  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States,  most 
of  the  great  highways  of  the  country  were  the  direct  de- 
scendants of  "  buffalo  roads,"  as  they  were  formerly  called. 
In  the  crossing  of  divides  from  one  river-valley  to 
another,  the  mountain-sections  of  the  railways  for  the 
greater  part  follow  the  trails  of  the  bison.  This  is  espe- 
cially marked  in  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio,  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  railways  ;  in  some  in- 
stances the  tunnels  through  ranges  have  been  constructed 
directly  under  the  trails.  The  reason  is  obvious  ;  the  in- 
stinct of  the  bison  led  him  along  routes  having  the  mini- 
mum of  grade. 

Throughout  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  great  plains 
the  Indian  trails  usually  avoided  the  bottom-lands  of  the 
river-valleys,  following  the  divides  and  portages  instead. 
This  selection  of  routes  was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  lowlands  were  swampy  and  subject  to  overflow ;  the 
portages  and  divides  offered  no  steep  grades,  and  were 
therefore  more  easily  traversed. 

Harbors. — Coast  outlines  have  much  to  do  with  the 
commercial  possibilities  of  a  region.     The  "  drowned  val- 


26  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

leys"  and  similar  inlets  along  the  North  Atlantic  coast, 
both  of  Europe  and  America,  form  harbors  in  which  vessels 
ride  at  anchor  in  safety,  no  matter  what  the  existing  con- 
ditions outside  may  be.  As  a  result,  the  two  greatest  cen- 
tres of  commerce  in  the  world  are  found  at  these  harbors 
— one  on  the  American,  the  other  on  the  European  coast. 

From  New  York  Bay  southward  along  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board there  are  but  few  harbors,  and  this  accounts  for  the 
enormous  development  of  commerce  in  the  stretch  of  coast 
between  Portland  and  Baltimore.  San  Francisco  Bay  and 
the  harbors  of  Paget  Sound  monopolize  most  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States.  South 
America  has  several  good  harbors  on  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board, and  in  consequence  a  large  city  has  grown  at  the 
site  of  each.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  good  harbors  are 
very  few  in  number,  and  they  are  not  situated  near  pro- 
ductive regions. 

Asiatic  peoples,  as  a  rule,  are  not  promoters  of  foreign 
commerce,  and,  those  of  Japan  excepted,  the  only  good 
harbors  are  those  that  have  been  improved  by  European 
governments.  These  are  confined  mainly  to  India  and 
China.  The  many  possible  harbors  make  certain  a  tre- 
mendous commerce  in  the  future.  Africa  has  but  very  few 
good  harbors.  There  are  excellent  harbors  in  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific,  and  many  of  them  are  of  great  strategic  value 
as  coaling  stations  and  bases  of  supply  to  the  various  mari- 
time powers. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DISCUSSION 

The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  has  found  it  more  economical  to 
tunnel  the  mountain-range  under  Horseshoe  Curve,  near  Altoona, 
than  to  haul  the  trains  over  the  mountains ;  discuss  the  details 
in  which  there  will  be  a  saving. 

Why  are  rugged  and  mountainous  regions  apt  to  be  sparsely 
peopled? 


TOPOGRAPHIC   CONTROL   OF   COMMERCE  27 

The  first  valuable  discovery  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  was  gold; 
what  were  the  chief  effects  that  resulted  ? 

Would  the  industries  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States 
be  benefited  or  impaired  by  the  existence  of  a  coast-plain  ? 

Which  are  more  conducive  to  commerce — the  large  mediter- 
raneans, such  as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  or  the  small  estuaries,  such 
as  New  York  Bay  ?    Discuss  the  merits  or  demerits  of  each. 

What  are  the  chief  products  of  mountains,  of  plateaus,  of  low- 
land plains  ? 

COLLATERAL  READING  AND   REFERENCE 

Adams's  New  Empire — Chapter  I. 

Red  way's  Physical  Geography — Chapter  IV. 

A  topographic  map  of  the  United  States. 


CHAPTER  IV 
CLIMATIC   CONTROL   OF  COMMERCE 

In  its  effect  upon  life  and  the  various  industries  of  peo- 
ples, climate  is  a  factor  even  more  important  than  topog- 
raphy. Of  the  53,000,000  square  miles  of  the  land  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  scarcely  more  than  one-half  is  capable 
of  producing  any  great  amount  of  food-stuffs,  and  only  a 
very  small  area  can  support  a  population  of  more  than 
one  hundred  people  to  each  square  mile. 

Climate  and  Habitability. — In  the  main,  regions  that 
are  inhabited  by  human  beings  produce  either  food-stuffs 
or  something  of  value  that  may  be  exchanged  for  food- 
stuffs ;  and  inasmuch  as  food  and  shelter  are  the  chief 
objects  of  human  activity,  regions  that  will  not  furnish 
them  are  not  habitable. 

The  growth  and  production  of  food-stuffs  is  governed 
even  more  by  conditions  of  climate  than  by  those  of  topog- 
raphy. Thus  the  great  Russian  plain  is  too  cold  to  pro- 
duce any  great  amount  of  food-stuffs,  and  it  is,  therefore, 
sparsely  peopled.  The  northern  part  of  Africa  and  the 
closed  basins  of  North  America  and  Asia  lack  the  rainfall 
necessary  to  insure  productivity,  and  these  regions  are 
also  unhabitable.  The  basin  of  the  Amazon  has  a  rainfall 
too  great  for  cereals  and  grasses,  and  the  larger  part  of  it 
is  unfit  for  habitation. 

All  the  food-stuffs  are  exceedingly  sensitive  to  climate. 
Rice  will  not  grow  where  swampy  conditions  do  not  pre- 
vail at  least  during  part  of  the  year.  Turf-grass  will  not 
live  where  there  are  repeated  droughts  of  more  than  three 

29 


30  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

months'  duration,  and  corn  will  not  ripen  in  regions  hav- 
ing cool  nights.  Wheat  does  not  produce  a  kernel  fit  for 
flour  anywhere  except  in  the  temperate  zone ;  and  the 
banana  will  not  grow  outside  the  torrid  zone. 

The  two  chief  factors  of  climate  are  temperature  and 
moisture.  No  forms  of  life  can  withstand  a  temperature 
constantly  below  the  freezing-point  of  water,  and  but  few, 
if  any,  can  endure  a  constant  heat  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  degrees,  although  most  species  can  exist  at 
temperatures  beyond  these  limits  for  a  short  time. 

Zones  of  Climate. — The  belt  of  earth  upon  which  the 
sun's  rays  are  nearly  or  quite  vertical  is  comparatively 
narrow.  But  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  and  the 
fact  that  it  is  parallel  to  itself  at  all  times  of  the  year 
create  zones  of  climate.  These  differ  materially  in  the 
character  of  the  life,  forms,  and  the  activities  of  the  people 
who  dwell  in  them. 

In  the  torrid  zone  the  temperature  varies  but  little. 
During  the  season  of  rains  it  rarely  falls  to  70°  F.,  and  in 
the  dry  season  it  is  seldom  higher  than  95°  F.  As  a  result, 
all  sorts  of  plants  that  are  sensitive  to  low  temperatures 
thrive  in  the  torrid  zone.  It  is  not  a  climate  suitable  for 
heat-producing  food-plants,  and  they  are  not  required. 

The  constant  heat  and  excessive  moisture  of  the  atmos- 
phere in  the  torrid  zone  is  apt  to  produce  a  feeling  of  lassi- 
tude among  the  dwellers  in  such  regions,  moreover,  and 
great  bodily  activity  is  out  of  question.  These  conditions 
seriously  affect  the  lives  of  the  people,  and,  with  few  excep- 
tions, tropical  peoples  are  rarely  noted  for  energy  or  enter- 
prise. Great  commercial  enterprises  are  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule,  and  they  are  usually  carried  on  by 
foreigners  who  must  live  a  part  of  the  time  in  cooler  local- 
ities. 

Polar  regions  are  deficient  both  in  the  heat  and  light 


32  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

necessary  for  food-stuffs.  Neither  the  grasses  nor  the  grains 
fructify.  As  a  result,  but  few  herbivora  can  live  there, 
and  these  are  practically  restricted  to  the  musk-ox  and  the 
reindeer,  which  subsist  on  mosses  and  lichens.  The  native 
people  are  stunted  in  growth ;  their  food  consists  mainly 
of  raw  blubber,  and  they  are  scarcely  above  savagery. 

The  temperate  zones  are  the  regions  of  the  great  indus- 
tries and  activities  of  human  life.  The  larger  part  of  the 
land  surface  of  the  earth  is  situated  in  these  zones ;  more- 
over, the  people  who  dominate  the  world  also  live  in  them, 
and  their  supremacy  is  due  largely  to  conditions  of  climate. 
The  alternation  of  summer  and  winter  causes  a  struggle 
for  existence  that  develops  the  intellectual  faculties  and 
results  in  industrial  supremacy. 

Effects  of  Altitude. — There  is  a  decrease  of  tempera- 
ture of  1°  F.  for  about  every  three  hundred  feet  of  ascent. 
But  few  people  live  at  an  altitude  of  more  than  six  thousand 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  in  many  cases  they  depend  on 
other  localities  for  the  greater  part  of  their  food  stuffs,  be- 
cause very  few  of  such  regions  produce  food-stuffs  abun- 
dantly. 

The  chief  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  found  in  tropical 
regions.  The  highlands  of  Mexico,  the  plateau-regions  of 
Bolivia  and  Ecuador,  and  the  highlands  of  southern  Asia 
are  habitable,  but  they  are  not  densely  peopled.  Because 
of  their  altitude  they  are  relieved  of  the  enervating  effects 
of  tropical  climate  at  the  sea-level. 

Altitude  likewise  affects  the  amount  of  rainfall.  Most 
plateaus  are  arid.  As  a  rule,  they  are  arid  because  of  their 
altitude ;  and  because  of  their  aridity  they  are  deficient 
in  their  power  to  produce  food-stuffs.  They  are  therefore 
sparsely  peopled. 

Effects  of  Rainfall. — Kegions  having  considerably 
more  than  one  hundred  inches  of  rain  annually  are  very 


CLIMATIC   CONTROL   OF  COMMERCE  33 

apt  to  be  forest-covered,  arid  therefore  to  be  deficient  in 
food-producing  plants.  Such  localities  have  usually  a 
sparse  population,  in  spite  of  the  profusion  of  vegetation. 
In  some  parts  of  India,  lands  that  have  been  left  idle 
for  a  few  seasons  produce  such  a  dense  jungle  of  wild 
vegetation  that  to  reclaim  them  for  cultivation  is  well- 
nigh  impossible. 

A  deficiency  of  rainfall  is  even  a  greater  factor  in  restrict- 
ing the  density  of  population  than  too  much  rain.  "With 
less  than  fifteen  or  twenty  inches  a  year  few  regions  pro- 
duce good  crops  of  grains  and  grasses,  and  as  a  result  they 
are  sparsely  peopled.  Some  of  the  exceptions,  however, 
are  important.  If  the  rainfall  is  not  quite  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  normal  overflow  to  the  sea,  the  soil  may  be  very 
rich,  because  the  nutrition  is  not  leached  out  and  carried 
away. 

Many  small  areas  of  this  character  produce  enormous 
crops  when  artificially  watered,  and  many  of  them,  such  as 
Persia,  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  northern  Utah,  and  large  areas 
of  Australia  and  Chile  have  become  regions  of  consider- 
able commercial  importance.  The  products  of  such  re- 
gions are  apt  to  be  unique  in  character  and  of  unusual 
value.  Thus,  the  wool  of  Persia  and  Australia  and  the 
fruit  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  are  important  articles  of 
commerce. 

In  Egypt  one  may  see  the  results  of  irrigated  lands. 
The  area  of  geographical  Egypt  is  somewhat  less  than  half 
a  million  square  miles ;  the  habitable  part  of  the  country 
is  confined  to  a  narrow  strip,  which,  one  or  two  places  ex- 
cepted, varies  from  three  to  six  miles  in  width.  In  other 
words,  almost  the  whole  population  of  the  country  is 
massed  in  the  flood-plain  and  delta  of  the  Nile ;  the  re- 
maining part  is  a  desert  producing  practically  nothing. 

The  water  that  makes  these  lands  productive  falls,  not 


34  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

in  Egypt,  but  in  the  highlands  of  Abyssinia,  2,000  miles 
away.  The  September  overflow  of  the  flood-plain  is  the 
chief  factor  in  the  irrigation  of  these  lands,  but  the  area 
has  been  greatly  increased  by  the  construction  of  barrages 
and  dams  at  Assiut  and  Assuan. 

In  the  western  highland  region  of  the  United  States  con- 
siderable areas  already  have  been  made  productive  by  irri- 
gation, and  it  is  estimated  that  about  two  million  acres  of 
barren  land  can  be  reclaimed  by  impounding  the  waters  of 
the  various  streams  now  running  to  Avaste. 

The  distribution  of  rain  with  respect  to  the  season  in 
which  it  falls  is  quite  as  important  as  its  distribution  with 
respect  to  quantity.  In  tropical  regions  the  ocean  winds, 
and  therefore  the  rainfall,  come  from  the  east.  The  east- 
ern slopes  of  such  regions,  therefore,  have  a  season  in 
which  rains  may  be  expected  daily,  and  another  in  which 
no  rain  falls  for  several  months.  In  the  temperate  zones 
seasonal  rains  for  a  similar  reason  are  on  the  western 
coasts. 

Thus  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  the  rain- 
fall varies  from  about  one  hundred  inches  in  southern 
Alaska  to  about  twelve  in  San  Diego,  Cal.  Practically 
all  the  rain  falls  between  October  and  the  following  May  ; 
very  little  or  none  falls  in  the  interval  between  May  and 
October.  As  a  result,  ordinary  turf -grass,  which  will  not 
withstand  long  droughts,  grows  in  only  a  few  localities 
of  the  Pacific  slope.  It  is  replaced  by  hardier  grasses 
whose  roots,  instead  of  forming  turf,  grow  very  deep  in 
the  soil. 

Common  clover  will  not  grow  in  this  region  unless  irri- 
gated ;  it  is  replaced  by  burr-clover,  a  variety  of  the  plant 
that  will  not  thrive  in  moist  regions.  Now  the  quality  of 
the  merino  wool  clip  of  California  depends  in  no  slight 
degree  upon  the  burr-clover  and  other  food-products  that 


36  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

thrive  in  regions  of  seasonal  rains;  that  is,  a  great  com- 
mercial industry  exists  because  of  this  feature  of  rainfall, 
and  it  could  not  long  survive  in  spite  of  it. 

The  seasonal  rainfall  also  affects  other  agricultural  in- 
dustries. The  sacked  wheat-crop  may  be  left  in  the  field 
without  cover  or  protection  until  the  time  is  convenient 
for  shipping  it.  The  absence  of  summer  rains  makes  pos- 
sible in  California  what  would  be  out  of  question  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  where  a  rainstorm  may  be  expected 
every  few  days. 

The  quality  of  certain  fruits  depends  largely  on  the  sea- 
son during  which  the  rainfall  occurs.  Apples,  pears,  and 
grapes  grown  in  regions  having  dry  summers  have  usually 
a  very  superior  flavor.  The  raisin-making  industry  of 
California  also  depends  on  the  same  condition,  because,  in 
order  to  insure  a  good  quality  of  the  product,  the  bunches 
of  grapes,  after  picking,  must  be  dried  on  the  ground.  To 
a  certain  extent  this  is  also  true  of  other  fruits,  such  as 
dates,  figs,  and  prunes,  which  frequently  are  sun-dried. 

The  presence  of  large  bodies  of  water,  which  both  ab- 
sorb and  give  out  their  heat  very  slowly,  tempers  the  cli- 
mate of  the  nearby  land  and  to  that  extent  modifies  the 
commerce  of  such  districts.  The  grape-growing  industry 
of  central  New  York  is  a  great  one  and  its  product 
is  famous.  Its  existence  depends  almost  wholly  upon 
the  lake-tempered  climate.  Elsewhere  in  the  State  the 
industry  is  on  a  precarious  basis,  and  the  product  is 
inferior. 

Effects  of  Inclination  of  the  Earth's  Axis.— The  in- 
clination and  self-parallelism  of  the  earth's  axis  is  un- 
doubtedly a  very  important  factor  in  climate.  Practically 
it  more  than  doubles  the  width  of  the  belts  of  ordinary 
food-stuffs  by  lengthening  the  summer  day  in  the  temper- 
ate zone.     Beyond  the  tropics  the  obliquity  of  the  sun's 


CLIMATIC   CONTROL   OF   COMMERCE  37 

rays  are  more  than  balanced  by  the  increased  length  of 
time  in  which  they  fall. 

Thus,  in  the  latitude  of  St.  Paul,  the  longest  day  is  about 
fifteen  and  one-half  hours  long ;  at  Liverpool  it  is  nearly 
seventeen  hours  long ;  a  greater  number  of  heat  units 
therefore  are  received  in  these  latitudes  during  summer 
than  are  received  in  equatorial  regions  during  the  twelve- 
hour  day.  Moreover,  the  summer  temperature  is  higher 
in  these  latitudes  than  in  the  torrid  zone,  because  the  sun 
is  shining  upon  them  for  a  greater  length  of  time. 

The  result  of  these  various  influences  is  far-reaching. 
Because  of  the  long  summer  days  and  short  nights,  wheat 
can  be  cultivated  to  the  sixtieth  parallel.  Corn,  which 
gets  scarcely  enough  warmth  and  light  in  the  torrid  zone 
to  become  a  prolific  crop,  attains  its  greatest  yield  in  the 
latitude  of  fourteen -hour  days. 

These  factors,  it  is  evident,  carry  the  grain  and  meat  in- 
dustries into  regions  that  otherwise  would  not  be  habita- 
ble. Because  the  long  summer  days  produce  these  great 
food-crops,  commerce  and  its  allied  industries  have  reached 
their  maximum  development  in  these  regions.  Human 
activities  are  greatest  in  the  zones  bounded  by  the  thirty- 
fifth  and  fifty-fifth  parallels,  the  zone  that  includes  the 
greater  parts  of  the  United  States,  Europe,  China,  Japan. 
They  are  greatest,  moreover,  because  of  their  geographical 
position. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

What  would  be  the  probable  effect  on  the  food-crops  of  the 
United  States  were  the  main  body  of  the  country  moved  twenty 
degrees  north  in  latitude?  Which  would  then  be  the  wheat- 
growing  States,  the  cotton-producing  States  ? 

Illustrate  the  connection  between  occupation  and  altitude 
above  sea-level. 


38  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

What  difference  would  it  make  to  the  corn-crop  were  the  days 
and  nights  always  twelve  hours  long? 

What  would  be  requisite  to  make  Canada  a  centre  of  silk  pro- 
duction? 

Why  is  not  cod-fishing  an  industry  off  the  east  coast  of  Flor- 
ida? 

Why  is  the  greater  part  of  the  Russian  Empire  destined  to  be 
sparsely  peopled  ? 

FOR  COLLATERAL  REFERENCE 

A  rain  chart  of  the  world. 
A  chart  of  isothermal  lines. 


CHAPTER  V 
TRANSPORTATION— OCEAN  AND  INLAND  NAVIGATION 

Of  all  the  adjustments  which  come  into  the  lives  of  a 
people  none  has  been  so  far-reaching  as  the  gradual  local- 
ization of  industries  each  in  the  region  best  adapted  to  it. 
For  instance,  manufacturing  industries  require  power,  but 
not  fertile  soil;  therefore  the  manufacturing  industries 
seek  nearness  to  fuel  or  to  water-power,  and  a  position 
available  for  quick  transportation. 

Farming  does  not  require  any  great  amount  of  natural 
power ;  on  the  contrary,  level  land  having  a  great  depth  of 
fertile  soil  is  the  essential  feature.  The  farmer  must  there- 
fore look  first  of  all  to  conditions  of  topography  and  cli- 
mate, and  secondly  to  the  means  of  transporting  his  crop. 

Mining  cannot  be  an  industry  in  regions  destitute  of 
minerals ;  the  miner  must  therefore  go  where  the  mineral 
wealth  is  found,  without  regard  to  climate,  soil,  centres  of 
population,  or  topography.  But  two  things  are  required — 
the  mineral  products  and  the  nieans  of  getting  them  to  the 
people — that  is,  ready  means  of  transportation. 

A  century  or  more  ago,  each  centre  of  population  in  the 
United  States  was  practically  self-sustaining.  Each  grew 
its  own  food-stuffs,  and  manufactured  the  articles  used  in 
the  household.  But  very  little  was  required  in  the  way 
of  transportation.  The  means  of  carriage  were  mainly 
ox-carts,  pack-horses,  and  rafts.  There  was  a  mutual  in- 
dependence among  the  various  centres,  it  is  true,  but  the 
independence  was  at  the  expense  of  civilization  and  the 

comforts  of  life. 

39 


OCEAN  AND  INLAND  NAVIGATION  41 

Beyond  an  independence  that  is  more  apparent  than 
real,  sncli  a  plan  of  social  and  industrial  organization  has 
but  little  in  it  to  commend.  Intercommunication  increases 
knowledge,  and  under  the  conditions  that  formerly  pre- 
vailed, there  was  a  lack  of  the  breadth  of  knowledge  that 
comes  with  the  mutual  contact  of  peoples. 

The  utilization  of  national  resources,  such  as  the  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  land,  the  existence  of  iron  ore,  coal, 
copper,  and  other  economic  minerals,  finally  brought 
about  the  policy  of  a  territorial  division  of  industries. 
This,  in  turn,  made  the  prompt  transportation  and  ex- 
change of  commodities  essential ;  indeed,  without  such  a 
plan,  industrial  centres  could  not  long  exist. 

The  man  whose  sole  business  is  manufacture  must  look 
to  others  for  his  supply  of  food-stuffs  and  raw  materials, 
and  these  are  produced  more  economically  at  a  distance 
from  the  centre  of  manufacture.  Thus  England  must  look 
to  the  United  States  for  wheat  and  cotton,  to  the  Austra- 
lian Commonwealth  for  wool,  and  to  New  Zealand  and  the 
United  States  for  meat.  Her  chief  wealth  is  in  her  coal 
and  iron,  and  these  make  the  nation  a  great  manufacturing 
centre.  So,  also,  the  manufacturer  of  New  York  must  go 
to  Pittsburg  for  steel,  to  Minneapolis  for  flour,  and  to 
Chicago  for  beef. 

The  application  of  this  principle  is  very  broad  ;  it  is  the 
foundation  of  all  commerce,  and  it  underlies  modern  civil- 
ization. For  this  reason  the  question  of  transportation  is 
just  as  important  to  a  community  as  the  industries  of  agri- 
culture, mining,  and  manufacture.  Food-stuffs  are  of  no 
use  unless  they  can  be  transported  to  the  people  who 
want  them  ;  nor  can  peoples  remain  in  unproductive  re- 
gions unless  the  food-stuffs  are  brought  to  them. 

The  gross  tonnage  of  goods  is  transported  mainly  in 
one  or  another  or  all  of  three  ways — namely,  by  animal 


42  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

power,  by  railway,  or  by  water.  Thus,  the  cotton-crop  of 
the  United  States  is  usually  transported  by  wagon  from 
the  plantation  to  the  nearest  station  or  boat-landing  ;  by 
rail  or  by  barge  to  the  nearest  seaport ;  and  by  ocean 
steamship  to  the  foreign  seaport. 

Water  transportation  is  more  economical  than  land  car- 
riage, for  the  reason  that  less  power  is  required  to  move  a 
given  tonnage  through  the  water  than  on  the  most  per- 
fectly graded  railway.  Steamship  freights,  as  a  rule,  are 
lower  than  those  of  sailing-vessels,  because  a  steamship 
has  more  than  twice  the  speed,  and,  being  larger,  can 
carry  a  greater  tonnage.  Freight  rates  on  the  Great  Lakes 
are  higher  per  ton-mile  than  on  the  ocean,  because  the 
vessels  are  necessarily  smaller  than  those  built  for  ocean 
traffic.  For  a  similar  reason,  river  and  canal  freights  are 
higher  than  lake  freights.  Railway  transportation  is  eco- 
nomical, partly  because  a  single  locomotive  will  draw  an 
enormous  weight  of  goods,  and  partly  because  of  the  high 
speed  at  which  the  goods  move  from  point  to  point. 
Animal  transportation  is  more  expensive  than  any  other 
means  ordinarily  employed. 

Ocean  Transportation.  —  In  many  respects,  water- 
routes  form  the  most  available  and  economical  methods  of 
transportation.  Intercontinental  commerce  must  be  car- 
ried on  by  means  of  deep-water  vessels.  Therefore  an  ex- 
traordinary development  of  ocean  carriers  has  taken  place 
in  the  past  century. 

One  important  period  of  development  began  with  the 
rise  of  American  commerce.  Just  after  the  close  of  the 
War  for  Independence,  it  was  found  that  deep-water 
ships  could  be  built  of  New  England  timber  for  thirty-five 
dollars  per  ton,  rated  tonnage,  while  a  vessel  of  the  same 
burden  built  in  Europe  cost  about  forty -five  dollars  per 
unit  of  tonnage.     Two  types  of  vessels  came  into  use — 


44  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

one,  the  clipper  ship  with  square  sails,  was  used  for  long 
ocean  voyages;  the  other,  the  schooner,  with  fore-and- 
aft  rigging,  was  employed  mainly  in  the  coast-trade. 

In  speed  and  ease  of  management  these  vessels  sur- 
passed anything  that  had  ever  sailed.   In  time  they  became 


W 


<J 


Britannia  Persia  *  Paris        KaiserWilhelm.il. 

1840  1855  1889  1903 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  MODERN  STEAMSHIP 

the  standards  for  the  sailing-vessels  of  all  the  great  com- 
mercial nations.  The  types  of  the  vessels  are  still  standards. 
The  Development  of  the  Steamship. — Another  im- 
portant era  in  ocean  commerce  began  when  steam  was 
used  as  a  motive  power  for  vessels.  The  first  deep-water 
vessel  thus  to  be  propelled  was  the  Savannah.  Her  steam- 
power  was  merely  incidental,  however,  and  her  paddle- 
wheels  were  unshipped  and  taken  aboard  when  there  was 


OCEAN   AND   INLAND   NAVIGATION  45 

enough  wind  for  sailing.  Up  to  1860  almost  all  the 
ocean  steamships  were  side-wheelers,  propelled  by  low- 
pressure  beam-engines. 

The  next  most  important  improvement  was  the  screw- 
blade  propeller,  placed  astern.  This  means  of  propulsion 
called  for  higher  speed  of  the  engines,  and  in  a  very  short 
time  compactly  built  high-pressure  engines  took  the  place 
of  the  low-pressure  engine  with  its  heavy  walking-beam- 
The  latter  carried  steam  at  a  pressure  varying  from  twenty 
to  thirty-two  pounds;  the  modern  boiler  has  steam  at 
260  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Ocean  steamships  have  gradually  evolved  into  two  types. 
The  freighter,  broad  in  beam  and  capacious,  is  built  to 
carry  an  enormous  amount  of  freight  at  a  moderate  speed. 
The  White  Star  liner  Celtic  is  a  vessel  of  this  class  ;  her 
schedule  time  between  New  York  and  Liverpool  is  about 
nine  days.  The  Philadelphia  of  the  American  line,  though 
not  the  fastest  steam-ship,  makes  the  same  trip  in  an  aver 
age  time  of  five  and  one-half  days.* 

Twin-screws,  instead  of  a  single  propeller,  are  employed 
on  nearly  all  the  large  liners.  The  gain  in  speed  is  not 
greatly  increased,  but  the  vessel  is  far  more  manage- 
able with  two  screws  than  with  one;  moreover,  if  one 
engine  breaks  down,  the  vessel  can  make  excellent  time1 
with  the  other. 

Triple-expansion  engines  are  almost  universally  used  on 
modern  steamships,  and  a  pound  of  coal  now  makes  about 
three  times  as  much  steam  available  as  in  the  engines 
formerly  used.  As  a  result  a  bushel  of  wheat  is  now  car- 
ried from  Fargo,  N.  Dak.,  to  Liverpool  for  about  twenty- 
one  cents — less  than  one-half  the  freight  tariff  of  1876. 

*  The  record  time  on  this  route  was  made  by  the  Lucania  in  five  days, 
seven  hours,  and  twenty-three  minutes,  from  Daunts  Rock,  Queenstown, 
to  Sandy  Hook  light.  The  fastest  day's  run  yet  recorded  was  made  by  the 
Deutschland — 601  nautical  miles,  a  speed  of  24.19  knots. 


OCEAN   AND   INLAND   NAVIGATION  47 

The  fastest  liners  consume  from  three  hundred  and  fifty 
to  more  than  four  hundred  tons  of  coal  a  day,  and  for  each 
additional  knot  of  speed  the  amount  of  coal  burned  must 
be  greatly  increased.  Freighters  like  the  Celtic  consume 
scarcely  more  than  half  as  much  as  those  of  the  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  II.  type. 

Sailing-Craft. — In  spite  of  the  growth  and  development 
of  steam-navigation,  a  large  amount  of  freight  is  still 
carried  by  sailing-craft ;  moreover,  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
the  relative  proportion  of  ocean  freight  carried  by  sailing- 
vessels  will  increase  rather  than  decrease,  especially  in  the 
case  of  imperishable  freight. 

The  square-rigged  ship,  or  bark,  has  been  very  largely 
replaced  by  the  fore-and-aft,  or  schooner-rigged  vessel.  A 
large  full-rigged  ship  requires  a  crew  of  thirty  to  thirty- 
six  men  ;  a  schooner-rigged  vessel  needs  from  sixteen  to 
twenty.  These  vessels  are  commonly  built  with  three  and 
four  masts  ;  some  of  the  largest  have  six  or  seven.  They 
carry  as  many  as  five  thousand  tons  of  freight  at  a  speed 
of  about  ten  knots — only  a  trifle  less  than  that  of  an  ordi- 
nary tramp  freighter.  Some  of  the  larger  vessels  are  pro- 
vided with  auxiliary  engines  and  propelling  apparatus, 
which  enables  them  to  enter  or  to  leave  port  without  the 
assistance  of  a  tug.  Donkey-engines  hoist  and  lower  the 
sails,  and  perform  the  work  of  loading  and  unloading. 
They  are  admirable  colliers  and  grain- carriers. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century,  about  ninety 
thousand  sailing-craft  and  thirty-five  thousand  steam- 
vessels  were  required  to  carry  the  world's  commerce.  Of 
this  number,  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  register 
nearly  thirty-five  thousand,  and  the  United  States  over 
twenty  thousand. 

Harbor  Safeguards.  —  Excepting  the  open  anchorages 
formed  by  angles  in  coast-lines,  the  greater  number  of  harbors 


48  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

consist  of  small  coves  and  river-mouths.  In  these,  although 
there  may  be  a  considerable  area  of  water,  there  is  not  apt  to  be 
much  sailing  room  ;  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  mark  off  the  navi- 
gable channels.  For  this  purpose  buoys  of  different  shapes  and 
colors  are  used  by  day  ;  by  night  fixed  and  flashing  lights  are  em- 
ployed. 

The  buoys  of  permanent  channels  are  usually  hollow  metal 
cylinders  or  cones  about  two  feet  in  diameter,  anchored  so  that 
the  end  of  the  cylinder  projects  about  three  feet  above  the 
water.  On  entering  a  channel  from  the  seaward,  red  buoys  are 
on  the  starboard,  or  right  hand  ;  white  buoys  are  kept  on  the 
port,  or  left  side.  Buoys  at  the  end  of  a  channel  are  usually  sur- 
mounted each  by  some  device  or  other  fastened  at  the  upper  end 
of  a  perch.  Thus*  at  the  outer  entrance  of  Gedney  Channel  in 
New  York  Harbor,  a  ball  surmounts  the  perch  ;  at  the  inner  en- 
trance the  buoy  carries  a  double  square.  Sharp  angles  in  a 
channel  are  similarly  marked.  In  many  instances  the  buoy  car- 
ries, as  a  warning  signal,  a  bell  that  rings  as  the  buoy  is  rocked 
by  the  waves  ;  in  others,  a  whistle  that  sounds  by  the  air  which 
the  rocking  motion  compresses  within  the  cylinder  ;  still  others 
carry  electric  or  gas  lights. 

The  color  of  a  buoy  is  an  index  of  its  character.  Thus,  one 
with  black  and  red  stripes  indicates  danger  ;  one  with  black  and 
white  vertical  stripes  is  a  channel-marker.  Temporary  channels 
are  frequently  marked  by  pieces  of  spar  floating  upright.  In 
some  cases  it  is  customary  to  set  untrimmed  tree-tops  on  the  port, 
and  trimmed  sticks  on  the  starboard. 

Light-houses  are  built  at  all  exposed  points  of  navigated 
coast-waters,  and  beacons  are  set  at  all  necessary  points  within  a 
harbor  for  use  at  night.  All  lights  are  kept  burning  from  sunset 
until  sunrise.  The  color,  the  duration,  and  the  intervals  of 
flashing  indicate  the  position  of  the  beacon.  In  revolving  lights 
the  beams,  concentrated  by  powerful  lenses,  sweep  the  horizon  as 
the  lantern  about  the  light  revolves.  Flashing  lights  are  pro- 
duced when  the  light  is  obscured  at  given  intervals.  Fixed 
lights  burn  with  a  steady  flame.  In  some  instances  a  sector  of 
colored  glass  is  set  so  as  to  cover  a  given  part  of  a  channel.  Range 
lights,  set  so  that  one  shows  directly  above  the  other,  are  used  as 
channel-markers. 

The  use  of  lights  may  be  seen  as  a  vessel  enters  New  York 


52  COMMEKCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

In  the  United  States  the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Erie  Canal 
and  Hudson  River  form  the  most  important  internal  water- 
way, and  by  them  the  continent  is  penetrated  as  far  west 
as  Duluth,  a  distance  of  more  than  one  thousand  three 
hundred  miles.  The  traffic  passing  out  of  Lake  Superior 
alone  is  about  one-third  greater  than  that  passing  out  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  at  the  Suez  Canal.  Much  of  this 
traffic  goes  across  the  continent,  and  the  route  in  question 
is  one  of  the  great  commercial  highways  of  the  world. 

The  Mississippi  River  and  its  branches  afford  not  far 
from  ten  thousand  miles  of  navigable  waters.  Canals  con- 
nect tributaries  of  this  river  with  the  Great  Lakes  at  Chi- 
cago and  at  several  points  in  Ohio.  The  development  of 
the  navigation  of  this  great  waterway  was  checked  by  the 
Civil  War,  and  after  the  close  of  the  war  the  great  advance 
in  railway  building  kept  its  improvement  in  the  background. 
The  general  government,  nevertheless,  has  done  much  to 
encourage  the  use  of  the  Mississippi  as  a  commercial  high- 
way, and  many  millions  of  dollars  have  been  spent  in  widen- 
ing and  deepening  its  channel.*  On  the  upper  river  grain 
and  lumber  form  the  chief  traffic  ;  on  the  lower  part  a  large 
part  of  the  world's  cotton-crop  starts  on  its  journey  to  the 
various  markets. 

On  account  of  the  soft-coal  fields  and  the  steel  manu- 
facture in  western  Pennsylvania,  the  commerce  of  the  Ohio 
River  is  very  heavy,  aggregating  not  far  from  fifteen 
million  tons  yearly.  Much  of  this  traffic  extends  to  ports 
on  the  Mississippi. 

The  navigable  parts  of  the  Hudson  and  Delaware  Rivers 
are  estuaries  of  the  sea  or  "  drowned  valleys."  In  each 
case  navigation  extends  about  to  the  limits  of  high  tide. 
Both  rivers  carry  a  heavy  freight  commerce ;   the  Hudson 

*  In  Congress  the  River  and  Harbor  Bill  always  receives  a  generous 
appropriation. 


OCEAN  AND   INLAND   NAVIGATION  53 

has  a  passenger  traffic  of  several  million  fares  each  year. 
Nearly  every  river  of  the  Atlantic  coast  is  navigable  to 
the  limit  of  high  tide  or  a  little  beyond.  Navigation  ex- 
tends to  the  point  where  the  coast-plain  joins  the  foothills. 
Above  this  limit,  called  the  "  Fall  Line,"  the  streams  are 
swift  and  shallow ;  below  it  they  are  deep  and  sluggish. 
As  a  result,  a  chain  of  important  river  ports  extends  along 
the  Fall  Line  from  Maine  to  Florida. 

River-navigation  in  Europe  in  the  main  is  inseparably 
connected  with  the  great  canal  systems.  As  a  rule,  the 
lower  parts  of  the  rivers  are  navigable  for  steamboats  of 
light  draught.  Some  of  the  smaller  streams  are  made 
navigable  by  means  of  a  long  steel  chain,  which  is  laid 
along  the  bed  of  the  stream ;  the  boat  engages  the  chain 
by  means  of  heavy  sprocket  wheels  driven  by  steam,  and 
thus  wind  the  boat  up  and  down  the  river. 

Ocean  steamers  penetrate  the  Amazon  Valley  to  a  dis- 
tance of  one  thousand  miles  from  its  mouth  ;  boats  of  light 
draught  ascend  the  main  stream  and  some  of  its  tributaries 
a  thousand  miles  farther.  The  Orinoco  is  navigable  within 
one  hundred  miles  of  Bogota.  Light-draught  boats  ascend 
the  tributaries  of  La  Plata  River  a  distance  of  fifteen  hun- 
dred miles. 

The  Asian  rivers  that  are  important  highways  of  com- 
merce are  few  in  number.  The  Amur,  Yangtze,  Indus,  and 
Cambodia  have  each  considerable  local  commerce.  The 
Hugli,  a  channel  in  the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  has  a  channel 
deep  enough  for  ocean  steamships.  The  tributaries  of  the 
Lena,  Yenisei,  and  Ob  have  been  of  the  greatest  service  in 
the  commercial  development  of  northern  Asia  from  the  fact 
that  their  valleys  are  both  level  and  fertile. 

Because  of  a  high  interior  and  abrupt  slopes,  the  rivers 
of  Africa  are  not  suitable  for  navigation  to  any  considerable 
extent ;  the  channels  are  uncertain  and  the  rivers  are  inter- 


52  COMMEKCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

In  the  United  States  the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Erie  Canal 
and  Hudson  River  form  the  most  important  internal  Avater- 
way,  and  by  them  the  continent  is  penetrated  as  far  west 
as  Duluth,  a  distance  of  more  than  one  thousand  three 
hundred  miles.  The  traffic  passing  out  of  Lake  Superior 
alone  is  about  one-third  greater  than  that  passing  out  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  at  the  Suez  Canal.  Much  of  this 
traffic  goes  across  the  continent,  and  the  route  in  question 
is  one  of  the  great  commercial  highways  of  the  world. 

The  Mississippi  River  and  its  branches  afford  not  far 
from  ten  thousand  miles  of  navigable  waters.  Canals  con- 
nect tributaries  of  this  river  with  the  Great  Lakes  at  Chi- 
cago and  at  several  points  in  Ohio.  The  development  of 
the  navigation  of  this  great  waterway  was  checked  by  the 
Civil  War,  and  after  the  close  of  the  war  the  great  advance 
in  railway  building  kept  its  improvement  in  the  background. 
The  general  government,  nevertheless,  has  done  much  to 
encourage  the  use  of  the  Mississippi  as  a  commercial  high- 
way, and  many  millions  of  dollars  have  been  spent  in  widen- 
ing and  deepening  its  channel.*  On  the  upper  river  grain 
and  lumber  form  the  chief  traffic  ;  on  the  lower  part  a  large 
part  of  the  world's  cotton-crop  starts  on  its  journey  to  the 
various  markets. 

On  account  of  the  soft-coal  fields  and  the  steel  manu- 
facture in  western  Pennsylvania,  the  commerce  of  the  Ohio 
River  is  very  heavy,  aggregating  not  far  from  fifteen 
million  tons  yearly.  Much  of  this  traffic  extends  to  ports 
on  the  Mississippi. 

The  navigable  parts  of  the  Hudson  and  Delaware  Rivers 
are  estuaries  of  the  sea  or  "drowned  valleys."  In  each 
case  navigation  extends  about  to  the  limits  of  high  tide. 
Both  rivers  carry  a  heavy  freight  commerce  ;   the  Hudson 

*  In  Congress  the  River  and  Harbor  Bill  always  receives  a  generous 
appropriation. 


OCEAN  AND   INLAND   NAVIGATION  53 

lias  a  passenger  traffic  of  several  million  fares  each  year. 
Nearly  every  river  of  the  Atlantic  coast  is  navigable  to 
the  limit  of  high  tide  or  a  little  beyond.  Navigation  ex- 
tends to  the  point  where  the  coast-plain  joins  the  foothills. 
Above  this  limit,  called  the  "  Fall  Line,"  the  streams  are 
swift  and  shallow ;  below  it  they  are  deep  and  sluggish. 
As  a  result,  a  chain  of  important  river  ports  extends  along 
the  Fall  Line  from  Maine  to  Florida. 

River-navigation  in  Europe  in  the  main  is  inseparably 
connected  with  the  great  canal  systems.  As  a  rule,  the 
lower  parts  of  the  rivers  are  navigable  for  steamboats  of 
light  draught.  Some  of  the  smaller  streams  are  made 
navigable  by  means  of  a  long  steel  chain,  which  is  laid 
along  the  bed  of  the  stream ;  the  boat  engages  the  chain 
by  means  of  heavy  sprocket  wheels  driven  by  steam,  and 
thus  wind  the  boat  up  and  down  the  river. 

Ocean  steamers  penetrate  the  Amazon  "Valley  to  a  dis- 
tance of  one  thousand  miles  from  its  mouth ;  boats  of  light 
draught  ascend  the  main  stream  and  some  of  its  tributaries 
a  thousand  miles  farther.  The  Orinoco  is  navigable  within 
one  hundred  miles  of  Bogota.  Light -draught  boats  ascend 
the  tributaries  of  La  Plata  River  a  distance  of  fifteen  hun- 
dred miles. 

The  Asian  rivers  that  are  important  highways  of  com- 
merce are  few  in  number.  The  Amur,  Yangtze,  Indus,  and 
Cambodia  have  each  considerable  local  commerce.  The 
Hugli,  a  channel  in  the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  has  a  channel 
deep  enough  for  ocean  steamships.  The  tributaries  of  the 
Lena,  Yenisei,  and  Ob  have  been  of  the  greatest  service  in 
the  commercial  development  of  northern  Asia  from  the  fact 
that  their  valleys  are  both  level  and  fertile. 

Because  of  a  high  interior  and  abrupt  slopes,  the  rivers 
of  Africa  are  not  suitable  for  navigation  to  any  considerable 
extent ;  the  channels  are  uncertain  and  the  rivers  are  inter- 


54  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

rupted  by  rapids.  The  Nile  has  an  occasional  steamboat 
service  as  far  as  the  "  First  Cataract,"  but  in  high  water  the 
service  is  sometimes  extended  farther.  The  Kongo  has  a 
long  stretch  of  navigable  water,  but  is  interrupted  by  rap- 
ids below  Stanley  Pool.  Similar  conditions  obtain  in  the 
Zambezi.  The  lower  part  of  the  Senegal  affords  good 
navigation.  The  Niger  has  in  many  respects  greater  com- 
mercial possibilities  than  other  rivers  of  Africa.  It  is  navi- 
gable to  a  distance  of  three  hundred  miles. 

Canals. — Canals  easily  rank  among  the  most  important 
means  of  traffic,  as  a  rule,  supplementing  other  navigable 
waters.  Thus,  by  means  of  an  elaborate  system  of  ca- 
nals, goods  are  transferred  by  water,  from  one  river-basin 
to  another,  so  that  practically  all  the  navigable  streams 
of  western  Europe  are  connected.  Canals  are  extensively 
used  to  avoid  the  falls  or  rapids  that  separate  the  various 
reaches  of  rivers.  The  water  itself  by  means  of  locks  lifts 
the  boat  to  a  higher  level  or  transfers  it  to  a  lower  reach, 
thus  saving  the  expense  of  unloading,  transferring,  and  re- 
loading a  cargo. 

The  manner  in  which  canals  supplement  the  obstructed 
navigation  of  a  river  is  seen  in  the  case  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence. This  river  is  obstructed  in  several  places  by  rapids, 
but  by  means  of  canals  steamship  service  connects  the 
Great  Lakes,  not  only  with  Quebec,  but  with  ports  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  as  well ;  indeed,  it  is  possible  to  send  a 
cargo  from  Duluth,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  to  Odessa 
or  Batum,  on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea. 

The  internal  water-ways  of  Canada  have  been  splendidly 
developed.  The  Canadian  St.  Marys  Canal  furnishes  an 
outlet  to  Lake  Superior  for  vessels  drawing  twenty-one 
feet.  The  Well  and  Canal  connects  Lakes  Erie  and  On- 
tario. The  Bideau  Canal  and  Biver  connect  Kingston  and 
Lake  Ontario  with  the  Ottawa,  and  the  latter  with  its  ca- 


OCEAN   AND   INLAND   NAVIGATION  55 

nals  is  navigable  to  the  St.  Lawrence.  With  a  population 
of  less  than  six  millions  the  Dominion  Government  has 
spent  nearly  one  hundred  million  dollars  in  the  improve- 
ment of  internal  water-ways. 

In  the  United  States  the  possible  development  of  canals 
has  been  neglected  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  stifled  by  rail- 
way building.  The  Erie  Canal,  built  before  the  advent  of 
the  railway,  connects  Lake  Erie  with  tide-water  at  Albany, 


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PROFILE   OF   ERIE   CANAL 

HORIZONTAL    SCALE     IOO   MILES    TO   THE    INCH,    VERTICAL   SCALE    I, COO    FEET   TO    THE    INCH 

a  distance  of  387  miles.  For  many  years  it  was  the  chief 
means  of  traffic  between  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  and  although  paralleled  by  the  six  tracks 
of  a  great  railway  system,  it  is  still  an  important  factor  in 
the  carriage  of  grain  and  certain  classes  of  slow  freight.* 
The  level  way  that  made  the  canal  possible  is  largely 
responsible  for  the  decline  of  its  importance,  for  the  ab- 
sence of  steep  grades  enables  a  powerful  locomotive  to 

*  In  many  instances  goods  designed  for  the  spring  trade  in  the  Western 
States  are  started  via  the  canal  in  October,  reaching  their  destination  at 
Chicago  some  time  in  April,  the  cargo  having  been  frozen  up  in  one  or 
another  of  the  canal  basins  during  the  winter.  The  rate  paid  for  this  slow 
transit  is  considerably  less  than  the  amount  which  otherwise  would  have 
been  paid  for  storage ;  moreover,  it  is  nearly  all  clear  profit  to  the  canal 
boatmen. 


56  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

haul  so  many  cars  that  the  quick  transit  more  than  over- 
balances a  very  low  ton  rate  by  the  canal. 

The  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  designed  to  connect 
the  Mississippi  Valley  with  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  fared 
much  worse  than  the  Erie  Canal.  Less  than  two  hundred 
miles  have  been  completed,  and  practically  no  work  except 
that  of  repair  has  been  done  since  1850  ;  the  heavy  grades 
between  Cumberland  and  Pittsburg  render  its  completion 
improbable. 

An  excellent  system  of  canals,  the  Ohio  and  Erie  and 
the  Miami  and  Erie,  connect  the  Ohio  River  with  Lake 
Erie.  These  canals  are  in  the  State  of  Ohio  and  aggregate 
about  six  hundred  miles  in  length.  They  are  important 
as  coal  and  ore  carriers.  Several  hundred  miles  of  canals 
were  built  along  the  river-valleys  of  eastern  Pennsylvania 
before  1840  for  carrying  coal  to  tide- water.  Most  of  them 
have  been  abandoned ;  one,  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  Ca- 
nal Co.,  survives  as  a  railway.  Inasmuch  as  the  coal  went 
on  a  down  grade  from  the  mines  to  the  markets,  it  could  be 
carried  more  economically  by  railway  than  by  canal. 

Of  far  greater  importance  are  the  St.  Marys  Canal  on 
the  Canadian  side,  and  the  St.  Marys  Falls  Canal  on  the 
American  side,  of  St.  Marys  River.  These  canals  obviate 
the  falls  in  St.  Marys  River  and  form  the  commercial  out- 
let of  Lake  Superior.  The  tonnage  of  goods,  mainly  iron 
ore  and  coal,  is  about  one-half  greater  than  that  of  the  Suez 
Canal.  About  twenty-five  thousand  vessels  pass  through 
these  canals  yearly. 

The  Chicago  Ship  and  Sanitary  Canal,*  from  Lake 
Michigan  to  Lockport,  on  the  Illinois  River,  was  designed 

*  The  minimum  depth  of  the  canal  is  22  feet ;  its  width  at  the  hottom  is 
160  feet.  It  was  begun  September,  1892,  and  completed  January  2,  1902, 
at  a  cost  of  thirty-four  million  dollars.  More  than  forty  million  cubic  yards 
of  earth  and  rock  were  excavated.    All  the  bridges  crossing  it  are  movable. 


OCEAN  AND   INLAND   NAVIGATION  57 

mainly  to  carry  the  sewage  of  Chicago  which,  prior  to  the 
construction  of  the  canal, was  poured  into  the  lake  through 
the  Chicago  River.  The  completion  of  the  canal  turned 
the  course  of  the  river  and  caused  the  water  to  flow  out  of 
the  lake,  carrying  the  city's  sewage.  It  is  intended  to 
complete  a  navigable  water-way  from  Chicago  to  St.  Louis 
deep  enough  for  vessels  drawing  fourteen  feet.  Its  value 
is  therefore  strategic  as  well  as  industrial,  for  by  means 
of  it  gun-boats  may  readily  pass  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
to  the  Great  Lakes. 

Oceanic  canals  are  designed  both  for  naval  strategic 
purposes  and  for  industrial  uses.  Thus,  the  Kaiser  Wil- 
hehn  Canal,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  to  Kiel  Bay, 
across  the  base  of  Jutland,  saves  two  days  between  Ham- 
burg and  the  Baltic  ports.  It  also  enables  German  war- 
vessels  to  concentrate  quickly  in  either  the  North  or  the 
Baltic  Sea.  The  Manchester  Ship  Canal  makes  Manches- 
ter a  seaport  and  saves  the  cost  of  trans-shipping  freights 
by  rail  from  Liverpool.  The  Corinth  Canal  across  the 
isthmus  that  joins  the  Peloponnesus  to  the  mainland  of 
Greece  affords  a  much  shorter  route  between  Italian  ports 
and  Odessa.  The  North  Holland  Ship  Canal  makes  Am- 
sterdam practically  a  seaport. 

Probably  no  other  highway  of  commerce  since  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Cape  route  around  Africa  has  caused  such  a 
great  change  and  readjustment  of  trade  between  Europe 
and  Asia  as  the  Suez  Canal.  Sailing-vessels  still  take  the 
Cape  route,  because  the  heavy  towage  tolls  through  the 
canal  more  than  offset  the  gain  in  time.  Steamships  have 
their  own  power  and  generally  take  the  canal  route,  thereby 
saving  about  ten  days  in  time  and  fuel,  and  about  four 
thousand  eight  hundred  miles  in  distance.  In  spite  of 
the  heavy  tolls  the  saving  is  considerable.  About  three 
thousand  five  hundred  vessels  pass  through  the  canal  yearly. 


68 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Suez  Canal,  constructed  by  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps, 
for  some  time  was  under  the  control  of  Trench  capitalists. 
Subsequently,  by  the  purchase  of  stock  partly  in  open  mar- 
ket and  partly  from  the  Khedive  of  Egypt,  the  control  of 
the  canal  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  English.  The  re- 
strictions placed  upon  the  passage  of  war-ships  is  such  that 
the  canal  would  be  of  little  use  to  nations  at  war. 


THE  ROUTE  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

The  necessity  of  an  interoceanic  canal  across  the  Amer- 
ican continent  has  become  more  imperative  year  by  year 
for  fifty  years.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  caused 
an  emigration  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  coast  which 
resulted  in  a  permanent  settlement  of  the  latter  region.  A 
railway  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  another  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  have  afforded  very  poor  means 
of  communication  between  oceans. 

In  1881  work  on  a  tide-level  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of 


OCEAN   AND   INLAND  NAVIGATION  59 

Panama  was  begun,  but  the  plan  was  afterward  changed 
to  a  high-level  canal.  The  change  was  thought  necessary 
partly  on  account  of  the  great  cost  of  the  former,  and 
partly  because  of  the  difficulties  of  constructing  so  deep  a 
cut — about  three  hundred  and  forty  feet— at  the  summit  of 
the  Culebra  ridge.  The  construction  company,  after  spend- 
ing the  entire  capital— about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
million  dollars — in  accomplishing  one-tenth  of  the  work, 
became  bankrupt.  The  United  States  subsequently  pur- 
chased the  franchise. 

A  canal  by  way  of  Lake  Nicaragua  has  also  been  pro- 
jected, and  two  treaties  with  Great  Britain,  whereby  the 
United  States  agreed  to  build  no  fortifications  to  guard  it, 
have  been  made.  No  work. beyond  the  surveys  has  yet 
been  undertaken,  however.  The  cost  of  each  canal  is  esti- 
mated between  one  hundred  and  fifty  million  and  two 
hundred  million  dollars.  The  Panama  route  will  require 
about  twelve  hours  for  the  passage  of  a  vessel ;  the  Nica- 
ragua route  about  sixty  hours.*     (See  map,  p.  270.) 

The  completion  of  a  canal  by  either  route  will  cause  a 
readjustment  of  the  world's  commerce  far  greater  than  that 
which  followed  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal.  By 
such  a  route  San  Francisco  is  brought  nearer  to  London 
than  Calcutta  now  is,  and  the  all-water  route  between  the 
Atlantic  ports  of  the  United  States  and  those  of  China  and 
Japan  will  be  shortened  by  upward  of  eight  thousand  miles. 
The  importance  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  already  a  great 
ocean  depot,  will  be  greatly  increased,  and  the  latter  is  be- 
coming one  of  the  great  commercial  stations  of  the  world. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DISCUSSION 

What  were  some  of  the  effects  which  resulted  from  the  various 
embargo  and  non-intercourse  acts  that  preceded  the  war  of  1812  ? 

*  This  is  on  the  supposition  that  night  travel  will  be  too  dangerous  a 
risk.  With  a  continuous  travel  the  time  would  be  about  thirty-three  hours. 


60  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

What  is  the  effect  upon  an  industry  when  all  means  of  getting 
the  products  to  market  are  cut  off  ? 

In  the  early  history  of  the  country  rivers  were  the  most  impor- 
tant highways  of  commerce  ;  obtain  an  account  of  some  instance 
of  this  in  detail. 

Certain  commodities  have  been  carried  about  four-fifths  of  the 
distance  between  Moscow  and  Vladivostok  by  water,  across  Si- 
beria. Illustrate  this,  using  the  map  of  the  Russian  Empire, 
plate,  p.  342. 

What  has  been  the  effect  of  cheap  steel  on  ocean  navigation  ? 

Discuss  the  difference  between  a  screw-steamship  and  a  side- 
wheeler  ;  a  ship  and  a  schooner.     How  are  vessels  steered  ? 

How  does  a  triple-expansion  engine  differ  from  an  ordinary 
steam-engine  ? 

Cargoes  are  carried  by  water  across  Europe  from  Havre  to  Mar- 
seilles, and  from  The  Hague  to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube  ;  illus- 
trate the  route  on  a  map  of  E  urope. 

The  following  instruction  occasionally  is  found  in  the  pilot- 
house of  a  vessel — what  is  its  meaning  ? 

"  Green  to  green  and  red  to  red — 
Perfect  safety  ;  go  ahead." 

From  the  chart  on  p.  49  show  how  a  pilot  uses  the  range  lights 
in  entering  New  York  Harbor. 

The  new  freighter  Minnesota  is  designed  to  carry  a  load  of 
30,000  tons  ;  how  many  trains  of  fifty  cars,  each  car  holding  30,000 
pounds,  are  required  to  furnish  her  cargo  ? 

From  the  map  on  pp.  x — xi  describe  the  new  ocean  routes  that 
will  be  created  by  an  interoceanic  canal  across  the  American 
continent. 

FOR  COLLATERAL  REFERENCE 

Photographs  or  illustrations  of  various  steam  and  sailing  craft. 
An  Atlantic  Coast  Pilot  Chart — any  month. 
A  map  showing  the  canals  of  the  United  States. 
A  map  showing  the  canals  of  Europe. 


CHAPTEK  YI 

TRANSPORTATION— RAILWAYS  AND   RAILWAY   OR- 
GANIZATION ;   PUBLIC   HIGHWAYS 

In  the  United  States  and  western  Europe,  in  spite  of 
the  low  cost  of  water  transportation,  the  railways  have  al- 
most wholly  monopolized  the  transportation  of  commod- 
ities. This  is  due  in  part  to  the  saving  of  time  in  transit 
— for  under  the  demands  of  modern  business,  the  only 
economy  is  economy  of  time — and  in  part  to  prompt  de- 
livery at  the  specified  time. 

Into  a  large  centre  of  population  like  New  York,  Lon- 
don, or  Berlin,  many  millions  of  pounds  of  perishable  food- 
stuffs must  be  brought  daily  for  consumption.  Now  these 
food-stuffs  must  be  delivered  with  promptness,  and  no  de- 
lay can  be  tolerated.  A  shipper  having  half  a  million 
pounds  of  meat  or  a  hundred  thousand  pounds  of  flour 
or  a  car-load  of  fruit  to  deliver  can  take  no  risks;  he 
sends  it  by  rail,  not  only  because  it  is  the  quickest  way, 
but  because  experience  has  shown  it  to  be  the  most  prompt 
way  ;  as  a  rule,  it  is  delivered  on  the  exact  minute  of 
schedule  time. 

Cargoes  of  silks  and  teas  from  China  and  Japan  might  be 
sent  all  the  way  to  London  by  water,  but  experience  has 
shown  a  more  profitable  way.  The  consignments  are  sent 
by  swift  steamships  to  Seattle  ;  thence  by  fast  express 
trains  to  New  York ;  there  they  are  transferred  to  swift 
liners  that  take  them  across  the  Atlantic  to  European  ports. 
And  although  this  method  of  shipment  is  enormously  ex- 

62 


RAILWAYS   AND   HIGHWAYS  63 

pensive  as  compared  with  the  all- water  route,  the  saving  of 
time  and  certainty  of  prompt  delivery  more  than  offset  the 
extra  cost  of  delivery. 

In  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  cost  of 
haulage  in  the  United  States  by  rail  decreased  so  materi- 
ally that  in  a  few  instances  only — notably  the  Great 
Lakes  and  the  Hudson  River — do  inland  waters  com- 
pete with  the  railways.*  This  is  due  in  part  to  better 
organization  of  the  railways,  but  mainly  to  the  substitu- 
tion of  Bessemer  steel  for  iron  rails  and  the  great  improve- 
ments in  locomotives  and  rolling  stock. 

The  use  of  a  steam-driven  locomotive  became  possible 
for  the  first  time  when  Stephenson  used  the  tubular 
boiler  and  the  forced  draught,  f  thereby  making  steam 
rapidly  enough  for  a  short,  quick  stroke.  In  1865  a  good 
freight  locomotive  weighing  thirty  tons  could  haul  about 
forty  box-cars,  each  loaded  with  ten  tons.  This  was  the 
maximum  load  for  a  level  track ;  the  average  load  for  a 
single  locomotive  was  about  twenty-five  or  thirty  cars. 
Heavier  locomotives  could  not  well  be  used  because  the 
iron  rails  went  to  pieces  under  them. 

The  invention  of  Bessemer  steel  produced  a  rail  that 
was  safe  under  the  pounding  of  a  locomotive  three  or  four 
times  as  heavy  as  those  formerly  employed  ;  it  produced 
boilers  that  would  carry  steam  at  250  instead  of  60  pounds 
pressure  per  square  inch.  As  a  result,  with  only  a  moder- 
ate increase  in  the  fuel  burned,  a  single  locomotive  on  a 

*  On  one  great  trunk  system  the  average  ton-mile  rate  in  1870  was  one 
and  one-seventh  cents;  in  1900  it  was  just  one-half  that  sum, 

f  The  modern  steam-making  hoiler  has  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  or 
more  tuhes  passing  through  it  from  end  to  end.  The  heat  from  the  fire- 
box as  a  rule  passes  under  the  boiler  and  through  the  tubular  flues ;  it 
thus  increases  the  heating  surface  very  greatly.  The  forced  draught  is 
made  by  allowing  the  exhaust  steam  to  escape  into  the  smokestack,  there- 
by increasing  the  draught  through  the  fire-box. 


64  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

level  track  will  haul  eighty  or  ninety  box-cars,  each  car- 
rying nearly  seventy  thousand  pounds.* 

The  application  of  the  double  and  the  triple  expansion 
principle  has  been  quite  as  successful  with  locomotive  as 
with  marine  engines  in  saviug  fuel  and  gaining  power — 
that  is,  it  has  decreased  the  cost  per  ton- mile  of  hauling 
freight  and  likewise  the  cost  of  transporting  passengers. 
Enlarged  "fire-boxes,"  or  furnaces, f  enable  steam  to  be 
made  more  rapidly  and  to  give  higher  speed.J  Only  a 
few  years  ago  forty-eight  hours  was  the  scheduled  time 
between  New  York  and  Chicago;  now  there  are  about 
forty  trains  a  day  between  these  two  cities,  several  of 
which  make  the  trip  in  twenty-four  hours  or  less. 

Railway  Development. — The  railway  as  a  common 
carrier,  having  its  right  by  virtue  of  a  government  charter, 
dates  from  1801,  when  a  tramway  was  built  between  Croy- 
don and  Wandsworth,  two  suburbs  of  London.  The  rails 
were  iron  straps,  nailed  to  wooden  stringers.  The  charter 
was  carefully  drawn  in  order  to  prevent  the  road  from 
competing  with  omnibus  lines  and  public  cabs. 

*  A  single  locomotive  of  the  New  York  Central  has  hauled  4,000  tons 
of  freight  at  a  speed  of  twenty-five  miles  an  hour.-  A  "  camel-back  "  of 
the  Philadelphia  &  Reading  hauled  4,800  tons  of  coal  from  the  mines  to 
tide-water  without  a  helper. 

f  The  Vanderbilt  boiler  with  cylindrical  corrugated  fire-box  invented  by 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt,  great-grandson  of  the  founder  of  the  New  York 
Central,  marks  an  important  step  in  locomotive  building.  The  cylindri- 
cal form  largely  obviates  the  necessity  of  an  array  of  stay-bolts  to  pre- 
vent warping ;  the  corrugated  surface  gives  greater  heating  power. 

X  The  Central- Atlantic  type  of  locomotive  illustrates  a  modern  improve- 
ment. The  driving-Avheels  are  placed  a  little  forward  of  their  usual  po- 
sition, while  the  fire-box,  formerly  set  between  the  wheels,  now  overhangs 
each  side  of  a  pair  of  low  trailing-wheels.  By  this  means  the  heating 
surface  of  the  fire  box  is  increased  nearly  one-half.  A  lever  controlled 
by  the  engineer  enables  the  latter  to  transfer  5,000  pounds  weight  from 
the  trucks  to  the  driving-wheels  when  a  grade  is  to  be  surmounted.  The 
daily  run  of  such  a  locomotive  is  greatly  increased.     (See  cut,  p.  61.) 


RAILWAYS  AND   HIGHWAYS  66 

When  the  steam  locomotive  succeeded  horse-power,  how- 
ever, there  followed  an  era  of  railway  development  that  in  a 
few  years  revolutionized  the  carrying  trade  in  the  thickly 
settled  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Short,  in- 
dependent lines  were  constructed  without  any  reference 
whatever  to  the  natural  movement  of  traffic.  There  seemed 
but  one  idea,  namely,  to  connect  two  cities  or  towns.  In- 
deed, the  absence  of  a  definite  plan  was  much  similar  to 
that  of  the  interurban  electric  roads  a  century  later;  local 
traffic  was  the  only  consideration. 

At  first  an  opinion  prevailed  that  the  road-bed  of  the 
railway  ought  to  be  a  public  highway  upon  which  any  in- 
dividual or  company  might  run  its  own  conveyances,  on 
the  payment  of  a  fixed  toll ;  indeed,  in  both  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  public  opinion  could  see  no  difference 
between  the  railway  and  the  canal.  The  employment  of 
a  steam-driven  locomotive  engine,  however,  made  such  a 
plan  impossible,  and  demonstrated  that  the  roads  must 
be  thoroughly  organized. 

At  the  close  of  1850  there  were  nearly  four  hundred 
different  railway  companies  in  England  ;  in  the  United 
States  about  a  dozen  companies  were  required  to  make  the 
connection  of  New  York  City  and  Buffalo.  A  few  of  these 
paid  dividends ;  a  large  majority  barely  met  their  operating 
expenses,  defaulting  the  interest  on  their  bonds  ;  a  great 
many  were  hopelessly  bankrupt. 

,  Consolidation  of  Connecting  Lines. — Between  1850 
and  1865  a  new  feature  entered  into  railway  management, 
namely,  the  union  of  connecting  lines.  This  was  a  posi- 
tive advantage,  for  the  operating  expenses  of  the  sixteen 
lines,  now  a  part  of  the  New  York  Central,  between  New 
York  and  Buffalo  were  scarcely  greater  than  the  expenses 
of  one-third  that  number.  The  service  was  much  quicker, 
better,  and   cheaper.     In   England   the   several   hundred 


66 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


companies  were  reduced  to  twelve ;  in  France  the  thirty- 
five  or  more  companies  were  reduced  to  six  in  number. 

The  consolidation  of  connecting  lines  brought  about  an- 
other desirable  feature— the  extension  of  the  existing  lines.* 
The  lines  of  continental  Europe  wrere  extended  eastward  to 
the  Russian  frontier,  and  to  Constantinople  ;  then  the  Alps 
were  surmounted.  In  the  United  States  railway  extension 
was  equally  great.    The  Union  and  Central  Pacific  railways 


A   TRUNK   SYSTEM— 

THE  VARIOUS   BRANCHES   EXTEND  INTO   COAL,  GRAIN,  IRON.  CATTLE, 

TIMBER,  AND   TOBACCO    REGIONS 


were  opened  in  1869,  giving  the  first  all -rail  route  to  the 
Pacific  coast.  Other  routes  to  the  Pacific  followed  within 
a  few  years,  one  of  which,  the  Canadian  Pacific,  was  built 
from  Quebec  to  Vancouver. 

*  A  line  from  Vienna  to  Triest  was  opened  about  1854 ;  Germany  was 
joined  to  Italy  across  Brenner  Pass  in  1868 ;  France  was  connected  with 
Italy  through  a  tunnel  near  Mont  Cenis  in  1871 ;  in  1882  the  traffic  of 
Germany  was  opened  to  Mediterranean  ports  by  a  tunnel  under  St.  Gottb- 
ard.     In  this  manner  trunk  systems  have  gradually  developed. 


RAILWAYS   AND   HIGHWAYS  67 

The  period  from  1864  was  one  of  extensive  railway 
building  both  in  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Some  of 
the  roads,  such  as  the  transalpine  railways  of  Europe  and 
the  Pacific  roads  of  the  United  States,  were  greatly 
needed.  Others  that  created  new  fields  of  industry  by 
opening  to  communication  productive  lands  were  also  wise 
and  necessary ;  the  lands  would  have  been  valueless  with- 
out them.  Not  a  few  lines  that  were  to  be  needed  in  time 
were  built  so  far  ahead  of  time  that  they  did  not  even  pay 
their  operating  expenses  for  many  years. 

Another  class  of  roads  was  intended  for  speculative  pur- 
poses. Thus,  there  were  instances  in  which  a  line  occu- 
pying a  given  territory  had  antagonized  its  patrons  by  poor 
service,  and  extortionate  charges.  Thereupon  another 
company  would  obtain  a  charter — which  was  then  easily 
done — and  build  a  competing  line  in  the  same  territory, 
the  former  most  likely  having  scarcely  enough  business 
for  one  road.*  The  results  were  almost  always  the  same ; 
a  war  of  rate-cutting  followed ;  the  stockholders  of  both 
roads  lost  heavily ;  and  one  or  both  went  into  the  hands 
of  receivers. 

Competition  and  Pools. — In  many  instances  the  con- 
solidation of  roads,  while  cutting  off  disastrous  competi- 
tion in  the  territory  jointly  occupied  by  the  two  roads, 
brought  the  consolidated  road  into  fierce  competition  with 
another  adjacent  system.  If  the  roads  had  practically  the 
Same  territory  but  different  terminals  the  competition  was 
confined  mainly  to  local  traffic.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
might  have  the  same  terminals  but  cover  different  local 
territories;    in    this    case    the    roads    must    compete    for 

*  The  building  of  the  West  Shore  Railroad  is  an  illustration.  After 
both  roads  had  suffered  tremendous  losses  the  New  York  Central  settled 
the  matter  by  purchasing  the  West  Shore.  This  was  one  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  similar  cases  both  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 


68  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

through  traffic.  Thus  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 
is  brought  into  competition  with  the  Union  Pacific  in 
Nebraska,  but  inasmuch  as  the  roads  have  different 
and  widely  distant  terminals,  their  local  traffic  is  easily 
adjusted.  The  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  and  the 
Northwestern  have  common  terminals  at  Chicago,  St. 
Paul,  Denver,  Omaha,  and  Kansas  City.  They  must 
therefore  compete  with  each  other,  and  with  half-a-dozen 
other  roads  for  their  through  traffic. 

Competition  between  railways  differs  greatly  from  that 
between  two  firms.  If  one  of  two  firms  cannot  afford  to 
compete,  the  manager  may  discharge  his  help,  and  close 
doors ;  he  then  does  not  suffer  actual  loss.  But  a  railway, 
being  a  common  carrier,  cannot  do  this ;  the  road  must 
keep  its  trains  moving  or  lose  its  charter.  If  it  cannot 
carry  goods  at  a  profit  it  must  carry  them  at  cost  or  at  a 
loss.  Even  the  latter  is  better  than  not  carrying  them  at 
all,  for  the  operating  expenses  of  the  road  must  go  on. 

So  between  1870  and  1880  most  of  the  railway  manage- 
ments were  busy  devising  ways  to  stop  a  rate-cutting  and 
competition  that  was  ruinous.  In  many  instances  great 
trunk  lines  would  have  consolidated  had  not  State  laws 
prevented.  They  could  not  maintain  rates  because  one  or 
another  of  the  weaker  roads  would  be  compelled  to  lower 
their  rates  in  order  to  meet  their  operating  expenses. 
Therefore  they  were  compelled  to  do  one  of  three  things, 
namely,  to  divide  the  territory,  to  divide  traffic,  or  to 
divide  earnings.  Either  of  the  two  latter  plans  is  called  a 
pool. 

Of  these  two  forms  of  pooling  the  division  of  the  traffic 
is  the  easier,  but  it  is  often  unsatisfactory  to  the  patrons 
of  the  road.  The  second  plan,  the  division  of  the  earn- 
ings, is  a  more  difficult  matter  to  adjust  because  each  road 
is  usually  dissatisfied  with  its  proportion.     As  a  matter  of 


RAILWAYS   AND   HIGHWAYS  69 

fact,  however,  the  first  plan  of  pooling  is  very  apt  to  grow 
into  the  second. 

In  several  instances  pools  have  been  declared  illegal  by 
the  courts,  but,  in  general,  railway  service  has  been  more 
satisfactory  under  the  pool  system  than  under  any  other. 
They  have  always  aroused  popular  suspicion,  however, 
from  the  fact  that  they  increase  power  of  the  railway  it- 
self. In  various  instances  important  trunk  lines  have 
formed  a  general  company,  each  having  its  separate  organ- 
ization, because  they  could  accomplish  under  a  combined 
organization  what  they  could  not  as  independent  com- 
panies. The  restrictions  against  pooling  have  therefore 
encouraged  combination  of  competing  Hues. 

Because  the  railway  is  an  absolute  necessity,  and  be- 
cause it  has  power  given  neither  to  individuals  nor  to  other 
corporations,  it  is  a  settled  policy  that  both  the  State  and 
general  Government  should  have  the  power  to  regulate  its 
rates,  and  should  in  every  way  prevent  unjust  discrimina- 
tion. Both  problems  are  very  difficult,  however,  and  the 
unintelligent  adjustment  of  rates  has  frequently  resulted 
in  injustice  both  to  the  roads  and  their  patrons. 

A  rate  per  ton-mile  for  each  class  of  freight  is  out  of 
question,  because  a  large  part  of  the  cost  to  the  company 
consists  in  loading,  handling,  and  storing  the  goods.  Once 
aboard  the  car,  it  costs  but  little  more  to  carry  a  ton  of 
freight  one  hundred  miles  than  to  move  it  one  mile.  The 
rates  per  mile,  therefore,  are  necessarily  greater  for  short 
distances  than  for  long  runs.  A  mile-rate  based  on  a  ten- 
mile  haul  would  be  prohibitive  to  the  shipper  if  applied 
to  a  run  between  Chicago  and  New  York.  On  the  other 
hand,  were  the  charges  based  on  the  long  run,  the  local 
rates  would  be  far  less  than  the  cost  of  the  service.* 

♦In  Great  Britain  the  ton-rate  is  about  $2.30  per  hundred  miles;  in 
Germany,  $1.75;  in  Russia,  $1.30;  in  the  United  States,  $0.70.  The 
difference  is  due  as  much  to  the  length  of  distance  hauled  as  to  econom- 
ical management. 


70 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


As  a  result  freight  rates  are  based  very  largely  on  the 
cost  of  the  service,  and  this  is  particularly  true  of  local 
freights.  This  practice  is  also  modified  by  charging  what 
the  traffic  will  bear,  and,  on  the  whole,  a  combination  of  the 
two  ideas  gives  the  most  reasonable  and  the  fairest  method 
of  basing  charges.  Thus,  a  car  filled  with  fine,  crated  fur- 
niture, which  is  light  and  bulky,  can  afford  a  higher  rate 
than  one  filled  with  scrap-iron.  Cars  filled  with  grain, 
lumber,  coal,  or  ore  are  made  up  in  train-loads,  and  form  a 
part  of  the  daily  haul ;  they  can  afford  to  be  taken  at  a 
lower  rate  than  the  stuffs  of  which  only  an  occasional  car- 
load is  hauled.  In  order  to  adjust  this  problem  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  divide  freights  into  six  general  classes. 


Chicago 


Pittsburg 


Montreal 


THE   PROBLEM   OF   FREIGHT   RATES 


In  handling  through  freights  the  problems  are  many, 
and,  if  two  or  more  roads  have  the  same  terminal  points,  a 
great  deal  of  friction  of  necessity  results.  The  longest 
roads  must  either  make  their  through  rates  lower  than  local 
rates  between  distant  points,  or  lose  much  of  their  through 
business.  They  cannot  afford  to  do  the  latter  and  the  stat- 
utory laws  may  forbid  the  former.  As  a  result  the  laws 
most  likely  are  evaded,  or  else  openly  disobeyed.* 

*  Thus,  A,  B,  and  C  are  roads  whose  chief  terminal  points  are  Chicago 
and  New  York  City.  The  road  C  is  the  shortest  of  the  three  lines,  but  its 
grades  are  very  heavy.     B  is,  say,  one  hundred  miles  longer,  but  has  no 


RAILWAYS   AND   HIGHWAYS  71 

The  difficulties  in  adjusting  the  matter  of  the  long  and 
the  short  haul,  as  has  been  shown,  have  caused  the  forma- 
tion of  pools  and  various  other  traffic  associations,  the  ob- 
ject of  which  has  been  to  prevent  rate-wars.  To  this  ex- 
heavy  grades.  A  is  a  very  indirect  route,  and  its  New  York  traffic  must  be 
trans-shipped  at  Boston,  or  perhaps  at  New  London,  and  sent  a  part  of  the 
way  by  water.  If  now  an  absolute  ton-mile  rate  is  fixed  for  either  road,  it 
is  evident  that  neither  of  the  others  can  carry  through  freight  without  al- 
tering rates.  If  C  fixes  a  rate,  then  A  and  B  must  either  charge  higher 
rates  between  Chicago  and  Montreal,  or  Chicago  and  Albany,  than  be- 
tween their  terminals.  And  although  this  is  illegal  in  most  States,  the 
laws  are  evaded  by  "  rebate,"  or  repayment  of  a  certain  sum  to  the  ship- 
per. Of  the  three  roads  B,  on  account  of  easy  grades,  is  in  the  best  posi- 
tion to  fix  rates.  It  therefore  makes,  not  the  lowest  rate,  but  the  one 
that  will  yield  the  best  returns.  C  conforms  to  this,  and  A  takes  what  it 
can  get,  hauling  at  a  very  small  profit.  But  if  A  happens  to  be  outside  of 
the  limits  of  the  United  States,  it  may  openly  cut  rates,  because  pretty 
nearly  all  the  through  freight  it  gets  is  clear  profit,  and  inasmuch  as  none 
of  the  laws  of  a  State  apply  to  the  Canadian  portion  of  the  road,  it  may 
do  what  the  others  cannot.  And  while  B  is  struggling  with  A,  the  three 
roads  X,  Y,  and  Z  are  perhaps  endeavoring  to  have  some  of  the  freight 
sent  from  Buffalo  eastward  over  their  own  lines.  In  instances  similar  to 
the  foregoing  it  is  customary  for  B  and  C  to  divide  the  through  business 
and  to  allow  a  "  differential"  to  A — that  is,  on  account  of  its  slower  de- 
livery of  through  freight,  to  carry  it  at  a  slightly  lower  rate  B  then  ad- 
justs its  traffic  with  X,  Y,  and  Z  in  a  similar  manner ;  and  on  the  whole 
this  is  the  fairest  way  to  all  concerned. 

The  following,  one  of  many  instances,  shows  the  difficulties  in  fixing 
rates  that  will  not  be  unjust  to  either  party  :  Danville  and  Lynchburg  com- 
pete for  a  certain  trade.  The  Southern  Railway  passes  through  both  cities, 
but  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  makes  Lynchburg  by  another  route  ;  Danville, 
therefore,  is  not  a  competing  point,  while  Lynchburg  is.  As  a  result,  the 
Southern  Railway  charged  $1.08  for  a  certain  traffic  from  Chicago  to  Dan- 
ville and  only  72  cents  to  Lynchburg,  some  distance  beyond,  this  being 
the  rate  over  the  other  road.  The  matter  finally  reached  the  Court  of 
Appeals,  and  the  latter  sustained  the  Southern  Railway.  The  rate  to  Dan- 
ville was  shown  to  be  not  excessive,  but  if  the  railway  were  required  to 
maintain  a  rate  to  Lynchburg  higher  than  72  cents,  it  would  lose  all  its 
traffic  to  that  point,  amounting  to  $433,000  yearly.  In  a  case  of  this  kind 
there  can  be  no  help  except  by  a  consolidation  of  the  two  roads  ;  by  virtue 
of  the  consolidation  all  the  Lynchburg  freight  will  then  go  over  the  line 
having  the  easiest  haul. 


72  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

tent  they  resulted  in  positive  good,  for  a  rate-war  in  the 
end  is  apt  to  be  as  hurtful  to  the  community  as  to  the  rail- 
way company.  The  attempt  to  settle  such  questions  has 
also  resulted  in  a  great  deal  of  legislation.  Some  of  this 
has  been  wise  and  good ;  but  not  a  little  has  been  hurtful 
both  to  the  railroads  and  to  the  community.  The  general 
result  is  seen  in  the  great  combination  of  competing  lines 
and,  more  recently,  of  competing  systems. 

Passenger  Service. — Passenger  traffic  is  more  easily 
managed  than  the  movement  of  freight.  For  the  greater 
part  the  rates  are  fixed  by  law.  On  a  few  eastern  roads 
local  rates  are  two  cents  per  mile  ;  in  the  main,  however, 
a  three- cent  rate  prevails,  except  that  in  sparsely  peopled 
regions  the  rates  are  four  and  five  cents  per  mile.  On 
many  roads  1,000-mile  books  are  sold  at  the  rate  of  twenty 
dollars ;  on  some  the  rate  is  twenty-five  dollars  per  book. 

Long-distance  rates  involving  passage  over  several  roads 
are  somewhat  less  than  the  local  rates.  These  rates  are 
determined  by  joint  passenger-tariff  associations.  Each 
individual  road  fixes  its  own  excursion  and  commutation 
rates ;  one  or  another  of  the  joint  passenger  associations 
determines  the  rates  where  several  roads  divide  the  traffic. 
The  latter  are  usually  one,  or  one  and  one-third  fares  for 
the  round  trip. 

Except  on  a  few  local  roads  in  densely  peopled  regions 
the  passenger  service  is  much  less  remunerative  than 
freight  business,  and  not  a  few  railways  would  abolish 
passenger  trains  altogether  were  they  permitted  to  do  so. 
Rate-cutting  between  competing  roads  has  not  been  com- 
mon since  the  existence  of  joint  passenger  associations. 
It  is  sometimes  done  secretly,  however,  through  the  use 
of  ticket-brokers,  or  "  scalpers,"  who  are  employed  to  sell 
tickets  at  less  than  the  usual  rate  ;  it  is  also  done  by  the  il- 
licit use  of  tickets  authorized  for  given  purposes,  such  as 


RAILWAYS   AND  HIGHWAYS  73 

"editors',"  "clergymen's,"  and  "advertising"  transpor- 
tation. 

In  many  instances,  where  several  roads  have  the  same 
terminal  points,  it  is  customary  for  the  road  or  roads  having 
the  quickest  service  to  allow  a  lower  rate  to  the  others. 
Thus,  of  the  seven  or  eight  roads  between  New  York  and 
Chicago,  the  two  best  equipped  roads  charge  a  fare  of 
twenty  dollars  on  their  ordinary,  and  a  higher  rate  on  their 
limited,  trains.  Because  of  slower  time  the  other  roads 
charge  a  sum  less  by  two  or  three  dollars  for  the  same 
service.   This  cut  in  the  rate  is  called  a  "  differential." 

Railway  Mileage.— The  railways  of  the  world  in  1900 
had  an  aggregate  of  nearly  four  hundred  and  eighty 
thousand  miles  distributed  as  follows  : 

North  America 216,000 

Europe 173,000 

Asia. , , 36,000 

South  America  and  West  Indies 28,000 

Australasia 15,000 

Africa 12,000 

In  western  Europe  and  the  eastern  United  States  there 
is  an  average  of  one  mile  of  railway  to  each  six  or  eight 
square  miles  of  area.  In  these  countries  railway  construc- 
tion has  reached  probably  its  highest  development,  and  the 
proportion  seems  to  represent  the  mileage  necessary  for 
the  commercial  interests  of  the  people. 

The  railways  of  the  United  States  aggregate  193,000 
miles — nearly  one-half  the  total  mileage  of  the  world. 
Over  this  enormous  trackage  38,000  locomotives  and 
1,400,000  coaches  and  cars  carry  yearly  600,000,000  pas- 
sengers and  1,000,000,000  tons  of  freight.  They  represent 
an  outlay  of  about  $5,000,000,000.  Owing  to  the  absence 
of  the  international  problems  that  have  greatly  interfered 
with  the  organization  of  European  railways,  the  roads  of 


74 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  "United  States  have  developed  "  trunk-system  "  features 
to  a  higher  degree  than  is  found  elsewhere. 

In  the  United  States  and  Canada  the  farms  of  the  great 
central  plain,  together  with  the  coal-mines,  are  the  great 
centres  of  production,  while  the  sea-ports  of  the  two  coasts 
form  great  centres  of  distribution.  Most  of  the  trunk  lines, 
therefore,  extend  east  and  west ;  of  the  north  and  south 


THE   DISTRIBUTION   OF  THE   RAILWAYS   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 
THEIR  POSITION   DEPENDS   ON   THE   PRODUCTION  OF  THE   LAND 

lines  only  two  are  important.  The  reason  for  the  east- 
west  direction  of  the  great  trunk  lines  is  obvious;  the 
great  markets  of  North  America,  Europe,  and  Asia  lie 
respectively  to  the  east  and  the  west. 

Railway  Ownership. — The  ownership  of  railways  is 
vested  either  in  national  governments  or  else  in  corporate 
companies ;  in  only  a  few  instances  are  roads  held  indi- 
vidually by  private  owners,  and  these  are  mainly  lumber 
or  plantation  roads.     Thus,  the  railways  of  Prussia  are 


RAILWAYS  AND  HIGHWAYS  75 

owned  by  the  state ;  most  of  those  of  the  smaller  German 
states  are  owned  either  by  the  state  or  by  the  empire; 
still  others  are  owned  by  corporate  companies  and  man- 
aged by  the  imperial  government.  In  their  management 
military  use  is  considered  as  first  in  importance. 

In  France  governmental  ownership  and  management 
have  been  less  successful.  Plans  for  an  elaborate  system 
of  state  railways  failed,  and  the  state  now  owns  and  oper- 
ates only  1,700  miles,  mainly,  in  the  southwest.  Belgium 
controls  and  operates  all  her  lines,  but  as  the  latter  are 
short  and  the  area  of  the  state  small,  there  are  no  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  excellent  management.  In  Great 
Britain  all  the  railways  are  owned  and  controlled  by  cor- 
porate companies.  The  great  transcontinental  line  of  the 
Russian  Empire  was  built  by  the  government,  but  the  lat- 
ter does  not  own  it. 

In  the  United  States  the  railways  are  now  owned  by 
corporate  companies.  Some  of  the  western  roads  were 
built  by  Government  subsidies;*  other  roads  were  built 
by  the  aid  of  States,  counties,  or  cities,  which  afterward 
sold  them  to  corporate  companies.  The  first  transconti- 
nental railways  required  Government  assistance,  and  could 
not  have  been  built  without  it ;  nowadays,  however,  cor- 
porate companies  find  no  difficulty  in  providing  the  capital 
for  any  railway  that  is  needed. 

Inasmuch  as  the  railway  is  a  positive  necessity,  upon 
whose  existence  depends  the  transportation  ^of  the  food 

'*  That  is,  the  Government  pledged  its  credit  for  the  money  borrowed, 
and  in  addition  gave  the  companies  alternate  sections  of  public  land  on 
both  sides  of  the  proposed  line,  the  land-grants  being  designed  partly  to 
encourage  immigration  and  partly  to  increase  the  building  funds  of  the 
various  companies.  In  several  instances  both  the  land-grants  and  the 
money  subsidies  were  scandalously  used.  At  least  one  road  used  its  earn 
ings  to  build  a  competing  line  and,  after  disposing  of  the  land-grant  and 
pocketing  the  proceeds,  allowed  the  Government  to  foreclose  the  mortgage 
and  sell  the  original  road. 


76  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

daily  required  in  the  great  centres  of  population,  the  char- 
ter of  the  railway  gives  the  company  extraordinary  powers. 
Most  steam  railway  companies  are  permitted  by  the  State 
to  exercise  the  power  of  eminent  domain — that  is,  they  may 
seize  and  hold  the  land  on  which  to  locate  their  tracks  and 
buildings,  if  it  cannot  be  acquired  by  the  consent  of  the 
owners  ;  they  may  also  seize  coal  and  other  materials  con- 
signed to  them  for  shipment  if  such  materials  are  neces- 
sary to  operate  their  lines. 

Therefore,  in  consideration  of  the  unusual  powers  pos- 
sessed by  the  companies,  the  various  States  reserve  the 
right  to  regulate  the  freight  and  passenger  tariffs.  They 
may  also  compel  the  companies  to  afford  equal  facilities  to 
all  patrons,  and  take  the  measures  necessary  to  prevent  dis- 
crimination. 

The  control  of  the  railways  by  the  government  may  be 
absolute,  as  in  the  German  state  of  Prussia ;  or  it  may  con- 
sist of  a  general  supervision,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Canadian 
railways.  In  almost  every  European  state  there  is  a  di- 
rector or  else  a  commission  to  act  as  a  representative  be- 
tween the  railways  and  the  people.  In  the  United  States 
the  various  States  have  each  a  railway  commission,  while 
the  general  Government  is  represented  by  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission. 

Electric  Railways. — The  use  of  electricity  as  a  motive 
power  has  not  only  revolutionized  suburban  traffic  but  it 
has  become  a  great  factor  in  rural  transportation  as  well. 
The  speed  of  the  horse-car  rarely  exceeded  five  or  six 
miles  per  hour,  while  that  of  the  electric  car  is  about  ten 
miles  per  hour  in  city  streets  and  about  twice  as  great 
over  rural  roads.  As  a  result,  the  suburban  limits  of  the 
large  centres  of  population  have  greatly  extended,  and  the 
population  of  the  outlying  districts  has  been  increased 
from  four  to  ten  fold. 


ELECTRIC   RAILWAY— ROCKY   iMOUNTAINS 


ELECTRIC   FREIGHT   LOCOMOTIVE— ERIE    RAILROAD 


78  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

From  some  of  the  larger  cities  the  electric  roads  reach 
out  to  distances  of  one  hundred  miles  or  more  and  have 
become  the  carriers  of  perishable  freight,  such  as  fruit  and 
dairy  products.  These  are  not  only  delivered  just  as 
promptly  as  though  they  were  sent  over  the  steam  roads, 
but  the  delivery  is  more  frequent.  Indeed,  the  marvel- 
lous success  of  the  electric  interurban  railway  is  due 
mainly  to  the  frequency  of  its  service. 

Public  Roads  and  Highways. — Carriages  propelled 
by  steam,  electric,  and  gasoline  motors  have  become  an 
important  factor  in  the  delivery  of  goods  in  nearly  every 
city  of  Europe  and  America.  They  are  not  only  speedier 
than  the  horse  and  wagon,  but  their  keeping  costs  less. 
They  are  economical  only  on  good  roads.  The  bicycle,  no 
longer  a  plaything,  exerted  a  very  decided  effect  on  trans- 
portation when  the  "  pneumatic  "  or  inflated  rubber  tire 
came  into  use.  Through  the  bicycle  came  the  demand 
for  good  roads ;  and  several  thousand  miles  of  the  best 
surfaced  roads  are  built  in  the  United  States  each  year. 

The  ordinary  highways  or  roads,  the  paved  streets  of 
the  large  cities  excepted,  are  popularly  known  either  as 
"  dirt  "  roads  or  "  macadamized  "  roads,  the  latter  name 
being  applied  to  about  every  sort  of  graded  highway  that 
has  been  surfaced  with  broken  rock.  Most  of  the  roads  of 
western  Europe  are  of  this  character.  They  are  laid  out 
with  easy  grades,  and  a  thick  foundation  of  heavy  stone  is 
covered  with  smaller  pieces  of  broken  rock,  the  whole 
being  finished  off  with  a  top-dressing  of  fine  material. 
Once  built,  the  expense  of  keeping  them  in  good  order 
is  less  than  that  of  keeping  a   dirt  road   in  bad  order. 

Most  of  the  country  highways  of  the  United  States  are 
dirt  roads  that  are  deep  with  dust  in  dry  weather  and 
almost  impassable  at  the  breaking  of  winter.  Roads  of 
this  character  are   such  a  detriment  that  grain  farming 


RAILWAYS   AND    HIGHWAYS  79 

will  not  pay  when  the  farm  is  distant  twenty  miles  or 
more  from  the  nearest  railway.  Many  a  farmer  pays  more 
to  haul  his  grain  to  the  nearest  railway  station  than  from 
the  railway  station  to  London. 

Since  it  has  become  apparent  that  the  commercial  de- 
velopment of  many  agricultural  regions  depends  quite  as 
much  on  good  wagon  roads  as  upon  railways  and  expen- 
sive farming  machinery,  there  has  been  a  disposition  to 
grade  and  rock-surface  all  roads  that  are  important  high- 
ways. Intercommunication  becomes  vastly  easier;  the 
cost  of  transportation  is  lessened  by  more  than  one-half ; 
and  the  wear  and  destruction  of  vehicles  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum.  In  every  case  the  improvement  of  the  road  is 
designed  to  increase  traffic  by  making  a  given  power  do 
more  work  in  less  time. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   DISCUSSION 

What  have  been  the  effects  of  Bessemer  steel  on  the  carrying 
power  of  railways?— on  cheapening  freight  rates  ? 

What  would  be  some  of  the  effects  first  apparent  were  a  large 
city  like  London  or  New  York  suddenly  cut  off  from  railway 
communication  ? 

What  is  meant  by  a  tubular  boiler? — by  a  forced  draught? — by 
a  switch  ? — by  an  automatic  coupler  ? 

Ascertain  from  a  railway  official  the  various  danger-signals  as 
indicated  by  lights,  flags,  and  whistle-blasts. 

Why  should  not  crated  furniture  and  coal  have  the  same 
freight  rate  ? 

What  is  meant  by  a  pool  ? — by  long  haul  and  short  haul  ? — by 
rebate  ? 

If  the  rate  on  a  given  weight  of  merchandise  is  one  dollar  and 
fifty  cents  for  five  miles,  should  it  be  three  hundred  dollars  for 
one  thousand  miles? 

FOR  COLLATERAL  READING  AND  REFERENCE 

Hadley's  Railroad  Transportation. 
American  Railwavs. 


CHAPTER  VII 
FACTORS  IN  THE  LOCATION  OF  CITIES  AND  TOWNS 

The  population  of  the  world  is  very  unevenly  distributed. 
Not  far  from  nine-tenths  live  in  lowland  plains,  below  an 
altitude  of  1,200  feet,  in  regions  where  food-stuffs  grow. 
The  remainder  live  mainly  in  the  grass-producing  regions 
of  the  great  plateaus,  the  mining  regions  or  the  flood-plains 
and  grassy  slopes  of  the  higher  montane  regions. 

Communal  Life.— In  each  of  these  regions,  also,  there 
is  a  very  unequal  massing  of  population.  In  part,  the 
various  families  live  isolated  from  one  another ;  in  part, 
they  gather  into  cities  and  villages.  In  other  words  the 
population  of  a  habitable  region  may  be  classed  as  rural 
and  urban.  In  the  United  States  and  western  Europe, 
agricultural  pursuits  encourage  rural  life,  each  family  living 
on  its  own  estate.  In  Russia,  the  agricultural  population 
usually  cluster  in  villages. 

The  farmer  or  freeholder  who  owns  or  controls  his  estate, 
exemplifies  the  most  advanced  condition  of  personal  and 
political  liberty.  Only  a  few  centuries  have  elapsed  since 
not  only  the  land  but  also  the  life  of  a  subject  was  the 
property  of  the  king  or  the  feudal  lord,  and  in  those  days 
about  the  only  people  living  in  isolation  were  outlaws.  In 
most  cases  the  communal  system,  best  exemplified  in  Russia, 
marks  an  intermediate  stage  between  a  low  and  a  high 
state  of  civilization  ;  in  other  instances  it  is  necessary  in 
order  to  insure  safety.  German  farmers  in  Siberia  usually 
adopt  the  village  plan  for  this  reason. 

For  the  greater  part,  the  non-agricultural  population  of 

81 


82  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

the  civilized  world  is  massed  in  villages  and  cities  for 
reasons  that  have  nothing  to  do  with  either  civilization  or 
self-defence.  The  causes  that  bring  about  the  massing  of 
urban  population  are  many  and  their  operation  is  com- 
plex. In  general,  however,  it  is  to  facilitate  one  or  more 
of  several  things,  namely— the  receiving,  distribution,  and 
transportation  of  commodities,  the  manufacture  of  products, 
the  existence  of  good  harbors,  and  the  existence  of  minerals 
and  metals  necessary  in  the  various  industries. 

The  Beginnings  of  Towns  and  Cities.— The  "coun- 
try town"  of  agricultural  regions  in  many  ways  is  the 
best  type  of  the  centre  of  population  engaged  in  receiving 
and  disbursing  commodities.  The  farmers  living  in  their 
vicinity  send  their  crops  to  it  for  transportation  or  final 
disposition.  The  country  store  is  a  sort  of  clearing-house, 
exchanging  household  and  other  commodities,  such  as 
sugar,  tea,  coffee,  spices,  drugs,  silks,  woollens,  cotton  goods, 
farming  machinery,  and  furniture  for  farm  products.  A 
railway  station,  grain  elevator,  and  one  or  more  banks 
form  the  rest  of  its  business  equipment. 

Usually  the  town  has  resulted  from  a  position  of  easy 
access.  It  may  be  the  crossing  of  two  highways,  a  good 
landing-place  on  a  river,  the  existence  of  a  fording-place, 
a  bridge,  a  ferry,  a  toll  gate,  or  a  point  that  formed  a 
convenient  resting  place  for  a  day's  journey.  The  towns 
and  villages  along  the  "  buffalo "  roads  are  examples 
almost  without  number. 

The  "  siding  "  or  track  where  freight  cars  may  be  held 
for  unloading,  has  formed  the  beginning  of  many  a  town. 
The  siding  was  located  at  the  convenience  of  the  railway 
company ;  the  village  resulting  could  have  grown  equally 
well  almost  anywhere  else  along  the  line. 

In  the  early  history  of  nearly  every  country,  military 
posts  formed  the  beginnings  of  many  centres  that  have 


84  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

grown  to  be  large  cities.  Thus,  Rome,  Paris,  London,  the 
various  "chesters"*  of  England,  Milan,  Turin,  Paris, 
Chicago,  Pittsburg,  and  Albany  were  established  first  as 
military  outposts.  The  trading  post  was  most  conveniently 
established  under  the  protection  of  the  military  camp,  and 
the  subsequent  growth  depended  partly  on  an  accessible 
position,  and  partly  on  the  intelligence  of  the  men  who 
controlled  the  trade  of  the  surrounding  regions. 

Harbors  as  Factors  in  the  Growth  of  Cities. — A 
good  harbor  draws  trade  from  a  great  distance.  Thus, 
with  a  rate  of  14J  cents  on  a  bushel  of  wheat  from  Chicago, 
New  York  City  draws  a  trade  from  a  region  having  a  radius 
of  more  than  one  thousand  miles.  In  its  trade  with  Chinese 
ports,  Seattle,  the  chief  port  of  Puget  Sound,  reaches  as  far 
eastward  as  London  and  Hamburg. 

Water-Power  as  a  Factor. — The  presence  of  water- 
power  has  brought  about  the  establishment  of  many  centres 
that  have  grown  into  populous  cities.  The  water-power  of 
the  New  England  plateau  had  much  to  do  with  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  New  England  States.  At  the  time  of  the 
various  embargo  and  non-intercourse  acts  preceding  the 
war  of  1812,  a  great  amount  of  capital  was  thrown  into 
idleness.  The  water-power  was  made  available  because, 
during  this  time,  the  people  were  compelled  to  manufact- 
ure for  themselves  the  commodities  that  before  had  been 
imported. 

The  manufacturing  industry  at  first  was  prosecuted  in 
the  southern  Appalachians  as  well  as  in  the  New  England 
plateau.  It  survived  in  the  latter,  partly  because  of  the 
capital  available,  and  partly  owing  to  the  business  experi- 
ence of  the  people.  In  the  meantime  villages  sprang  up 
in  pretty  nearly  every  locality  in  which  there  was  avail- 
able water-power. 

*  From  the  Latin  "  castra,"  a  camp. 


THE  LOCATION   OF   CITIES   AND   TOWNS  85 

Since  the  use  of  coal  and  the  advent  of  cheap  railway 
transportation,  steam  has  largely  supplanted  water-power, 
unless  the  latter  is  unlimited  in  supply.  As  a  result,  there 
is  a  marked  growth  of  the  smaller  centres  of  population 
along  the  various  water-fronts.  In  such  cases  the  advan- 
tages of  a  water-front  offset  the  loss  of  water-power. 

The  Effects  of  Metals  on  the  Growth  of  Cities.— 
The  character  of  the  industry  of  a  region  has  much  to  do 
with  the  character  of  its  manufactures.  Thus,  coal  is  ab- 
solutely essential  to  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel ; 
and,  inasmuch  as  from  two  to  eight  tons  of  the  former  are 
necessary  to  manufacture  a  ton  of  steel,  it  is  cheaper  to 
ship  the  ore  to  a  place  to  which  coal  can  be  cheaply  brought. 

The  coal-fields  are  responsible  for  the  greater  part  of 
Pittsburg's  population,  and  almost  wholly  for  that  of  Scran- 
ton,  Wilkesbarre,  and  many  other  Pennsylvania  towns. 
Iron  and  coal  are  responsible,  also,  for  many  cities  and 
towns  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Lakes.  Birmingham, 
Salford,  and  Cardiff  in  Great  Britain,  Dortmund  and  Essen 
in  Germany,  and  St.  Etienne  in  France  have  resulted  from 
the  presence  of  coal  and  iron. 

In  many  instances  man  is  a  great  factor  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  centre  of  population.  Chicago  would  have 
been  quite  as  well  off  in  two  or  three  other  locations;  its 
present  location  is  the  result  of  man's  energy  and  is  not 
likely  to  be  changed.  St.  Louis  might  have  been  built  at 
adozen  different  places  and  would  have  fared  just  as  well ; 
the  same  is  true  of  St.  Paul,  or  of  Indianapolis. 

Lenvenworth  at  one  time  was  a  more  promising  city 
than  Kansas  City,  but  the  building  of  an  iron  bridge  over 
the  Missouri  Kiver  at  the  latter  place  gave  it  a  start,  and 
wide-awake  men  kept  it  in  the  lead.  It  has  grown  at  the 
expense  of  Leavenworth  and  St.  Joseph,  neither  one  of 
which  has  become  a  commercial  centre.     Cairo,   at   the 


86  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

junction  of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Rivers,  has  the  geo- 
graphical position  for  a  great  city  ;  it  waits  for  the  man  who 
can  concentrate  the  commerce  there. 

Adjustment  to  Environment.  —  San  Francisco  was 
wisely  located  at  first,  but  its  grain  trade  was  more  eco- 
nomically carried  on  at  Karquinez  Strait,  while  its  oriental 
trade  is  gradually  concentrating  at  Seattle.  Philadelphia 
lost  its  commercial  supremacy  when  the  completion  of  the 
Erie  Canal  gave  return  cargoes  to  foreign  vessels  dis- 
charging at  New  York  City.  Oswego,  N.  Y.,  had  the 
advantage  of  both  harbor  facilities  and  water-power,  but 
Syracuse,  with  practically  no  advantages  except  those  of 
leadership,  has  far  outstripped  it. 

Such  instances  of  the  readjustment  of  centres  of  popu- 
lation have  been  common  in  the  past ;  they  will  also  occur 
in  the  future.  In  nearly  every  case  the  readjustment  re- 
sults from  economic  causes,  the  opening  of  new  lines  of 
transportation,  the  lowering  of  the  cost  of  the  production 
of  a  commodity,  the  discovery  of  new  economic  processes 
— all  these  cause  a  disturbance  of  population,  and  the  latter 
must  readjust  itself  to  new  and  changed  conditions. 

Not  all  peoples  have  the  necessary  intelligence  and  train- 
ing at  first  to  adapt  themselves  to  their  environment.  For 
the  greater  part,  the  American  Indians  were  unable  to  take 
advantage  of  the  wonderful  resources  of  the  continent  in 
which  they  lived.  The  Boers  occupied  about  the  richest 
part  of  Africa,  but  made  no  use  of  the  natural  wealth  of 
the  country  beyond  the  grazing  industry;  in  fact,  their 
nomadic  life  reduced  them  to  a  plane  of  civilization  ma- 
terially lower  than  that  of  their  ancestors. 

People  of  the  highest  state  of  civilization  do  not  always 
adjust  themselves  to  their  environment  readily.  The  peo- 
ple of  the  New  England  plateau  were  nearly  a  century  in 
learning  that  they  possessed  nearly  all  the  best  harbors  of 


THE  LOCATION   OF  CITIES  AND  TOWNS  8? 

the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America.  When,  however,  the 
great  commerce  of  the  country  had  been  wiped  out  of  ex- 
istence, it  did  not  take  them  long  to  readjust  themselves  to 
the  industry  of  manufacture,  the  water-power  being  the 
natural  resource  that  made  the  industry  profitable. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Were  the  middle  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  to  undergo 
an  elevation  of  100  feet,  what  would  be  the  effect  on  New  York 
City? 

Find  the  factors  that  led  to  the  settlement  of  the  city  or  town 
in  which  or  near  which  you  live.  What  caused  the  settlement  of 
the  three  or  four  largest  towns  in  the  same  county  ? — of  the  fol- 
lowing places  :  Minneapolis,  Fall  River,  New  Haven,  New  Bed- 
ford, Cairo  (111.),  Cairo  (Egypt),  Marseille,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Alex- 
andria (Egypt),  Washington  (D.  C),  Columbus  (O.),  Johannes- 
burg (Africa),  Kimberley  (Africa),  Albany  (N.  Y.),  Punta  Arenas 
(S.  A.),  Scranton  (Pa.),  Vancouver  (B.  C),  San  Francisco,  Cape 
Nome? 

What  circumstances  connected  with  commerce  led  to  the  pass- 
ing of  the  following-named  places  :  Palmyra,  Carthage,  Babylon, 
Genoa,  Venice,  Ancient  Rome,  Jerusalem  ? 

COLLATERAL  REFERENCE 
Any  good  cyclopaedia. 


CHAPTEK  VIII 
THE   CEREALS  AND   GRASSES 

Of  all  the  plants  connected  with  the  economies  of  man- 
kind the  grasses  hold  easily  the  first  place.  Not  only  are 
the  seeds  of  certain  species  the  chief  food  of  nearly  all 
peoples,  but  the  plants  themselves  are  the  food  of  most 
animals  whose  flesh  is  used  as  meat.  Wheat,  maize,  and 
rice  are  used  by  all  except  a  very  few  peoples ;  and  about 
all  the  animals  used  for  food,  fish  and  mollusks  excepted, 
are  grain  eaters,  or  grass  eaters,  or  both. 

The  grasses  of  the  Plains  in  Texas,  the  Yeldt  in  South 
Africa,  and  the  hills  of  New  Zealand  by  nature's  processes 
are  converted  into  meat  that  feeds  the  great  cities  of  western 
Europe  and  the  eastern  United  States.  The  corn  of  the 
Mississippi  valley  becomes  the  pork  which,  yielded  from 
the  carcasses  of  more  than  forty  million  swine,  is  exported 
to  half  the  countries  of  the  world.  Even  the  two  and  one- 
half  billion  pounds  of  wool  consumed  yearly  is  converted 
grass. 

Wheat. — The  wheat  of  commerce  is  the  seed  of  several 
species  of  cereal  grass,  one  of  which,  Triticum  safivwn,  is 
the  ordinary  cultivated  plant.  Wild  species  are  found  in 
the  highlands  of  Kurdistan,  in  Greece,  and  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, that  are  identical  with  species  cultivated  to-day.  It 
is  thought  that  the  cultivation  of  the  grain  began  in 
Mesopotamia,  but  it  is  also  certain  that  it  was  grown  by 
the  Swiss  lake- dwellers  far  back  in  prehistoric  times.  It 
is  the  "  corn  "  Joseph's  brothers  sought  to  buy  when  they 


sf* 


4*        .,ijir%ff|! 


THE   GRAIN   CROP- 
MODERN    METHODS   OF   CULTIVATION   AND   HARVESTING 


90  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

went  to  Egypt,  and  the  records  of  its  harvesting  are  scat- 
tered all  over  the  pages  of  written  history. 

Of  the  one  and  one-half  billion  people  that  constitute 
the  world's  population,  more  than  one-third,  or  about 
eight  times  the  population  of  the  United  States,  are  con- 
sumers of  wheat-bread  ;  and  this  number  is  yearly  increas- 
ing by  twelve  million.  Moreover,  each  individual  of  this 
aggregate  consumes  yearly  very  nearly  one  barrel  of  flour, 
or  about  four  and  one-half  bushels  of  wheat.  In  other 
words,  it  requires  somewhat  more  than  two  billion  three 
hundred  million  bushels  of  wheat  each  year  to  supply  the 
world's  demand.*  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  world's  crop  is 
yearly  consumed  so  nearly  to  the  danger-line  that  very 
often  the  "visible  supply,"  or  the  amount  known  to  be 
in  the  market,  is  reduced  to  a  few  million  bushels. 

Wheat  will  grow  under  very  wide  ranges  of  climate,  but 
it  thrives  best  between  the  parallels  of  25°  and  55°.  In 
a  soil  very  rich  in  vegetable  mould  it  is  apt  to  "run  to 
stalk."  A  rather  poor  clay-loam  produces  the  best  seed,f 
and  a  hard  seed,  rather  than  a  heavy  stalk,  is  required. 

In  the  latitude  of  Kansas  the  seeds  planted  in  the  fall 
will  retain  their  vitality  through  the  winter  ;  in  the  latitude 
of  Dakota  they  are  "  winter-killed,"  as  a  rule.  Because  of 
this  feature  two  broad  classes  or  divisions  of  the  crop  are 
recognized  in  commerce— the  winter  and  the  spring  varie- 
ties.    In  general,  the  spring  wheats  are  regarded  as  the 

*In  1897  the  world's  crop  was  2,226,750,000  bushels,  and  as  a  result, 
the  countries  in  which  the  crop  was  short  suffered  from  high  prices  Had 
it  not  been  for  the  prompt  carrying  service  of  railways  and  steamships 
famine  would  have  resulted. 

f  In  order  to  yield  a  crop  of  twenty  five  bushels  per  acre  the  soil  must 
supply  110  lbs.  of  nitrogen,  45  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  30.5  lbs.  of  lime, 
14.5  lbs.  of  magnesia,  and  142  lbs.  of  potash;  these  are  approximately  the 
mineral  elements  taken  out  of  the  soil  with  each  crop,  and  it  is  needless  to 
say  that  they  must  be  replaced  or  the  grain  will  starve  for  want  of  nutrient 
substances. 


THE   CEREALS   AND   GRASSES 


91 


better,  and  this  is  nearly  always  the  case  in  localities  too 
cold  for  winter  wheat.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule, 
however.  In  the  main,  winter  wheat  ripens  first,  and 
is  therefore  first  in  the  market.* 

In  Europe  the  plain  that  faces  the  North  and  Baltic 
Seas,  and  that  part  which  extends  through  southern  Eussia, 


*  In  the  United  States  there  are  about  seven  wheat-districts,  each  char- 
acterized by  particular  varieties  that  grow  best  in  the  given  locality.  In 
the  New  England  and  most  of  the  middle  Atlantic  division  Early  Genesee 
Giant,  Jones  Winter  Fife,  and  Fultz  are  chiefly  grown.  In  the  Southern 
States  Fultz,  Fulcaster,  Purple  Straw,  and  May  are  foremost.  In  the  north 
central  group  of  States  Early  Red  Clawson,  Poole,  Dawson's  Golden  Chaff, 
Buda  Pest,  and  Fultz  are  common.  In  the  Dakotas  and  Minnesota  Scotch 
Fife  and  Velvet  Blue  Stem  (both  spring  wheats)  are  generally  planted. 
In  Kansas  and  Texas  and  the  adjacent  locality  the  principal  varieties  are 
Turkey,  Fulcaster,  and  Mediterranean  (all  winter  wheats).  In  California 
and  the  southern  plateau  region  Sonora,  California  Club,  and  Defiance 
are  the  principal  kinds  (all  winter  wheats).  In  Washington  and  Oregon 
Little  Club,  Red  Chaff,  and  Blue  Stem  (which  are  either  winter  or  spring) 
are  the  main  varieties. 


92 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


yield  the  chief  part  of  the  crop,  although  the  plains  of  the 
Po,  the  Danube,  and  Bohemia  furnish  heavy  crops.  Russia, 
France,  Austria-Hungary,  Germany,  and  Italy  are  all  wheat 
states. 

In  a  normal  year  all  Europe  produces  a  little  more  than 
one- half  (fifty -five  per  cent.)  of  the  world's  crop.  Kussia 
and  France  excepted,  scarcely  another  state  produces  as 
much  as  is  consumed.     Great  Britain  consumes  her  entire 


WHEAT 

IN 

UNITED  STATES. 

.     SCALE  OF  MILES., . 
p        ,         ,         ,  ,5?0 


crop  in  three  months;  Germany  in  about  six  months. 
France  sends  a  part  of  her  crop  to  Great  Britain  and  buys 
of  Russia  to  fill  the  deficiency.  Russia  consumes  but  very 
little  of  her  wheat-crop  ;  it  is  nearly  all  sold  to  the  states 
of  western  Europe.  All  Europe  consumes  about  one  bil- 
lion seven  hundred  and  ten  million  bushels,  but  produces 
about  one  billion  two  hundred  and  fifty  million ;  the 
remainder  is  supplied  by  the  United  States,  India,  Argen- 
tina, Africa,  and  Australia. 

In  the  United  States  the  great  bulk  of  the  crop  comes 
from  the  upper  Mississippi  valley  and  Pacific  coast  States. 


THE  CEREALS   AND  GRASSES 


93 


About  one-third  is  consumed  where  it  is  grown  ;  more  than 
one-third  is  required  for  the  populous  centres  of  the  east ; 
a  little  less  than  one-third  is  exported,  of  which  about  ninety 
per  cent,  goes  to  Europe. 

Much  of  this,  especially  the  Pacific  coast  product,  is  sold 
unground,  but  each  year  an  increasing  amount  is  made  into 


United  Statet 


Austria-Hungary 

Germany 

Italy 

Other  Countries 


WHEAT 

Production  in  1900 
in  Million  Bushels. 


flour.  The  flour  manufacture  of  the  United  States  aggre- 
gates somewhat  more  than  160,000,000  barrels  yearly — 
the  output  of  16,000  flour-mills;  the  Pillsbury  mills  of 
Minneapolis  alone  have  a  capacity  of  60,000  barrels  a 
week.  In  Europe  the  Hungarian  mills  and  their  output 
of  Bohemian  flour  are  the  chief  competitors  of  the  United 
States. 

The  wheat -crop  of  the  Pacific  coast  has  usually  been  a 
factor  by  itself.  On  account  of  the  absence  of  summer 
rains,  the  kernel  is  both  plump 
and  hard.  After  the  thresh- 
ing process  it  is  sacked  and 
stored  in  the  fields  in  which  it 
has  grown.*     Heretofore  much  of  the  sacked  wheat  has 

*  Sometimes  the  owner  sends  it  to  the  nearest  elevator  at  tide-water 
where  the  grain  is  stored,  not  in  bulk,  but  in  the  original  packages,  subject 
to  his  demand.  In  the  course  of  a  month  or  six  weeks  it  absorbs  so  much 
moisture  that  the  gain  in  weight  more  than  pays  the  storage  charges. 


Rest  of  the  World 


WHEAT 


94  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

been  shipped  to  European  markets  by  the  Cape  Horn 
route,  but  in  late  years  a  yearly  increasing  amount  is 
made  into  flour  and  sold  in  China,  Japan,  and  Siberia. 
In  1900  nearly  two  million  barrels  were  thus  sent. 

East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  after  the  grain  is  har- 
vested much  of  it  is  sold  to  dealers  whose  storage  eleva- 
tors *  are  scattered  all  over  the  wheat-growing  region,  and 
at  all  great  points  of  shipment,  such  as  Dulutk,  Minneap- 
olis, Buffalo,  and  the  eastern  seaports.  Before  the  grain  is 
transferred  to  the  elevators  it  is  inspected  and  graded,  and 
the  cars  which  contain  it  are  sealed.  This  wheat  consti- 
tutes the  "  visible  supply."  All  the  business  concerning 
it  is  transacted  by  means  of  "  warehouse  receipts,"  that 
have  almost  the  currency  of  ready  money.  Banks  loan 
money  on  them  almost  to  their  market  value. 

Under  normal  conditions,  the  cost  of  growing  and  har- 
vesting a  bushel  of  wheat — including  interest  on  the  land 
and  deterioration  of  the  machinery,  etc. — is  between  fifty 
and  fifty-five  cents.  The  market  price,  when  not  affected 
by  "  corners "  and  other  gambling  transactions,  usually 
varies  between  sixty-two  and  eighty-five  cents.  The  differ- 
ence between  these  figures  is  divided  between  the  farmer 
and  the  "  middle-men,"  the  share  of  the  latter  being  in  the 
form  of  commissions  and  elevator  charges. 

In  addition  to  bread-making  wheat,  certain  varieties  of 

*  The  elevators  are  equipped  with  "  legs  "  or  long  spouts,  within  which 
belts  with  metal  scoops  transfer  the  grain  from  car  to  vessel  or  vice  versa. 
The  elevators  at  Buffalo  will  fill  a  canal-boat  in  an  hour's  time,  or  load 
six  grain-cars  in  five  minutes.  A  large  whaleback  steamship  may  be 
relieved  of  its  200,000  bushels  in  about  three  hours.  Most  of  the  east- 
bound  wheat  of  the  Middle  West  is  transferred  to  the  seaboard  by  rail,  but 
that  of  the  northwest,  which  forms  the  chief  part  of  the  crop,  is  shipped 
from  Duluth  through  the  St.  Marys  Falls  Canal  to  Buffalo,  where  it  is 
transferred  to  cars  or  to  canal-boats  New  York  is  the  leading  export 
market,  but  Boston,  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  Baltimore,  and  Philadel- 
phia are  also  important  shipping  ports. 


if      & 

1                  1 

^M 

Mil               Trlk     %.  \  jH 

■W       '  ^>^ 

*004 

r„Kmm_ 

STORING   PACIFIC  COAST   WHEAT 


96  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

grain  known  as  macaroni  wheat  have  a  certain  impor- 
tance in  the  market.  Several  varieties  are  so  hardy  that 
they  easily  resist  extremely  cold  winters ;  they  will  also 
grow  in  regions  too  dry  for  ordinary  varieties.  In  this 
respect  they  are  well  adapted  to  the  plains  at  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Kocky  Mountains.  The  only  detriment  is  the 
lack  of  a  steady  market.  Macaroni  wheat  has  a  very  hard 
kernel  and  is  rich  in  gluten.  It  is  used  mainly  in  the  manu- 
facture of  macaroni  paste,  but  in  Europe,  when  mixed  with 
three  times  its  weight  of  ordinary  soft  wheat,  it  is  much 
used  in  making  flour.  The  small  amount  now  grown  in 
the  United  States  is  shipped  mainly  to  France. 

The  yield  of  wheat  varies  partly  with  the  rainfall,  but 
the  difference,  is  due  mainly  to  skill  in  cultivation.  In 
western  Europe  it  is  from  two  to  three  times  as  great  as 
in  the  United  States ;  in  Eussia  and  India  it  is  much 
less.* 

The  yearly  consumption  of  wheat  is  increasing  very 
rapidly  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe ;  more- 
over, China  is  becoming  a.  wheat-consuming  country.  In 
the  United  States  the  consumption  is  increasing  so  rapidly 
that  unless  either  the  acreage  of  the  crop,  or  else  the  yield 
per  acre,  is  materially  increased,  there  will  be  no  surplus 
for  export  after  the  year  1931. 

*The  following  is  approximately  the  yield  of  the  chief  wheat-growing 
countries  in  bushels  per  acre  : 

Denmark 42         France 19.5  Australia 10 

England 29        Austria 16.3  India 9.2 

New  Zealand 26         Canada 15.5  Russia 8.6 

Germany ..23.2  United  States. ..  12  3  Algeria 7.5 

Holland  &  Belgium  21.5     Argentina 12  2 

Hungary 18  5      Italy 12  1 

The  low  average  in  Australia,  India,  and  Algeria  is  due  mainly  to  lack 
of  rainfall ;  in  the  United  States  and  Russia,  mainly  to  unskilful  culti- 
vation. 


98  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

In  the  United  States  the  acreage  may  be  somewhat  in- 
creased by  the  irrigation  of  arid  lands  now  uncultivated, 
and  by  the  reclamation  of  overflowed  and  swamp  lands. 
There  are  far  greater  possibilities,  however,  in  the  employ- 
ment of  methods  of  cultivation  which  will  double  the  rate 
of  present  yield.  It  is  doubtful  if  there  can  be  much  in- 
crease of  acreage  in  the  States  of  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
where  the  acreage  will  of  necessity  be  lessened  rather  than 
increased. 

In  western  Europe  there  can  he  no  material  increase  of 
the  acreage  or  the  rate  of  yield ;  in  Kussia  both  are  pos- 
sible. The  plains  of  Argentina  now  yield  a  notable 
quantity — about  one  hundred  million  bushels — and  the 
amount  may  be  increased.  Moreover,  a  large  product  may 
be  obtained  from  both  Uruguay  and  Paraguay,  and  southern 
Brazil,  neither  one  of  which  produces  a  considerable  quan- 
tity. At  the  present  rate  of  the  increase  in  consumption, 
all  of  the  available  land,  yielding  its  maximum,  will  not 
produce  a  sufficient  crop  at  the  end  of  the  twentieth  century. 

Corn.— Maize  or  Indian  corn  is  the  seed  of  a  plant,  Zea 
mays,  sl  member  of  the  grass  family.  It  is  not  known  to 
exist  in  a  wild  state.  The  species  now  cultivated  are 
undoubtedly  derived  from  the  American  continent,  but 
evidence  is  not  wanting  to  show  that  it  was  known  in 
China  and  the  islands  of  Asia  before  the  discovery  of 
America.*  The  commercial  history  of  corn  begins  with 
the  discovery  of  America.  Next  to  meat  it  was  the  chief 
food  of  the  native  American  ;  next  to  wheat  it  is  the  chief 
food-stuff  in  the  American  continent  to-day. 

Corn  requires  a  rich  soil  and  is  not  so  hardy  as  wheat. 
It  thrives  best  in  regions  having  long  summers  and  warm 

*  It  seems  to  have  been  introduced  into  Turkey  from  India  about  the 
latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  after  which  it  was  occasionally  heard 
of  in  Europe  as  "  Turkey  corn." 


THE   CEREALS   AND   GRASSES 


99 


nights.  The  growing  crop  is  easily  injured  by  too  much 
rain.  It  is  an  abundant  crop  in  the  central  Mississippi 
Valley,  but  not  near  the  coast ;  it  is  very  prolific  in  Ne- 
braska, but  not  in  Dakota ;  it  thrives  in  Italy,  Austria, 
and  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  but  not  in  the  British  Isles  and 
Germany.  It  is  a  very  important  crop  in  Australia,  and 
is  the  staple  grain  of  Mexico.  It  is  the  crop  of  fourteen- 
hour  days  and  warm  nights. 

The  United  States  is  the  chief  producer  of  corn,  and 


from  an  area  of  80,000,000  acres — about  that  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois  combined — more  than  two  billion 
bushels,  or  four-fifths  of  the  world's  crop,  are  produced. 
In  the  past  few  years  the  area  planted  with  corn  has  not 
materially  increased,  and  it  is  likely  to  be  lessened  rather 
than  increased  in  the  future.  From  the  same  acreage, 
however,  the  annual  yield,  now  about  twenty-five  or  thirty 
bushels  per  acre,  can  be  more  than  doubled  by  the  use  of 
more  skilful  methods  of  cultivation. 

Corn  contains  more  fatty  substance,  or  natural  oil,  than 


100 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


wheat,  and  therefore  has  a  greater  heating  power.  For 
this  reason  it  is  better  than  wheat  for  out-of-door  workers, 
and  it  is  almost  the  only  cereal  food-stuff  consumed  in 
Spanish  America.  It  is  also  a  staple  food-stuff  in  Egypt. 
Corn  has  been  used  as  a  bread-stuff  in  the  United  States, 
Italy,  and  Rumania*  for  a  long  time.  In  recent  years, 
however,  its  use  has  become  very  popular  in  Europe. 

In  the  United  States  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  crop 
is  consumed  where  it  is  grown,  being  used  to  fatten  swine 


United  States 

Austria-Hungary 

Rumania 

Italy 

Other  Countries 


i1 1'l'i'r 


10  12     ,     14     ,     13     ,     18     ,     20   21 


CORN 

Production  in  1898 
in  Hundred  Million  Bushels. 


£L 


and  cattle.  The  market  value  of  a  pound  of  corn  is  about 
one-third  of  a  cent ;  converted  into  pork  or  beef,  however, 
it  is  worth  five  or  six  times  as  much.  By  feeding  the  corn 
to  stock,  therefore,  a  farmer  may  turn  an  unmarketable 
product  into  one  for  which  there  is  a  steady  demand. 

Although  corn  is  not  so  essential  a  staple  as  wheat,  it 
has  a  much  wider  range  of  usefulness.     The  starch  made 

from  it  is  considered  a  delicacy 
and     is     used   very   largely    in 


UNITED  STATES 


Rest 

of 

the 

World 


CORN 


J  America  and  Europe  as  an  article 
of  food.  Glucose,  a  cheap  but 
wholesome  substitute  for  sugar,  is  made  from  it ;  from 
the  oil  a  substitute  for  rubber  is  prepared ;  smokeless 
powder  and  other  explosives  are  made  from  the  pith  of 

*  The  u  tortilla,"  the  national  bread  of  the  Mexican,  consists  of  a  thick 
corn-meal  paste  pressed  into  thin  wafers  between  the  hands,  and  baked 
on  hot  slabs  of  stone.  The  corn-meal  "  mush  "  of  the  American,  the 
"polenta"  of  the  Italian,  and  the  "mamaliga"  of  the  Rumanian  are  all 
practically  corn-meal  boiled  to  a  thick  paste  in  water. 


THE   CEREALS   AND   GRASSES  101 

the  stalk ;  while  a  very  large  part  of  the  product  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  liquor. 

Rye. — Rye  is  the  seed  of  a  cereal  grass,  Seceale  cereale, 
a  plant  closely  resembling  wheat  in  external  appearance. 
Rye  will  grow  in  soils  that  are  too  poor  for  wheat ;  its 
northern  limit  is  in  latitudes  somewhat  greater  than  that 
of  wheat,  also.  It  is  an  ideal  crop  for  the  sandy  plain 
stretching  from  the  Netherlands  into  central  Russia,  and 
this  locality  produces  almost  the  whole  yield.  The 
world's  crop  is  about  one  and  a  half  billion  bushels,  of 
which  Russia  produces  nearly  two-thirds.  Germany,  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, and  Japan  grow  nearly  all  the  rest.  It  is 
consumed  where  it  is  grown.  In  the  United  States  the 
yearly  product  is  about  twenty-five  million  bushels,  about 
one-tenth  of  which  is  exported  to  Europe.  Rye-bread  is 
almost  always  sour,  and  this  fact  is  its  chief  disadvantage. 

Barley. — Barley  is  the  seed  of  several  species  of  cereal 
grass,  mainly  Hordeum  disticlium  and  Hordeum  vulgar e. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest-used  of  bread-stuffs.  It  can  be  cul- 
tivated farther  north  than  wheat,  and  about  as  far  within 
the  tropics  as  corn ;  it  has,  therefore,  very  wide  limits. 
Formerly  it  was  much  used  in  northwestern  Europe  as  a 
bread-stuff,  but  in  recent  years  it  has  been  in  part  sup- 
planted by  wheat  and  corn.  Barley  is  a  most  excellent 
food  for  horses,  and  in  California  is  grown  mainly  for  this 
purpose.  Its  chief  use  is  for  the  manufacture  of  the  malt 
used  in  brewing. 

The  world's  crop  of  barley  is  not  far  from  one  billion 
bushels,  of  which  the  United  States  produces  about  sixty 
million  bushels.  Most  of  the  crop  is  grown  in  the  Ger- 
manic states  of  Europe,  and  in  Russia. 

Oats. — The  oat  is  the  seed  of  a  cereal  grass,  Avena 
sativa  being  the  species  almost  always  cultivated.  It  is 
not  known  where  the  cultivated  species  originated,  but  the 


102 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


earliest  known  locality  is  central  Europe,  where  it  was 
certainly  a  domestic  plant  during  the  Bronze  Age.  It 
seems  probable  that  the  species  now  cultivated  in  Scot- 
land at  one  time  grew  wild  in  western  Europe ;  certain  it 
is  that  wild  species  are  found  in  North  America. 


Russia 

United  States 

Germany 

France 

Great  Britain 

Austria-Hungary 

Canada 

Other  Countries 


3          100        200        300        400        500       600        700        800        900 

OATS 

Production 
in  Hundred  Million  Bushels. 

The  oat  grows  within  rather  wider  limits  of  latitude, 
and  thrives  in  a  greater  variety  of  soils  than  does  wheat. 
Grown  in  a  moist  climate,  however,  the  grain  is  at  its  best. 
The  oat-crop  of  the  world  aggregates  more  than  three 
billion  bushels,  surpassing  that  of  wheat  or  corn  in  meas- 
urement, but  not  in  weight.  A  small  portion  of  this  is 
used  as  a  bread-stuff,  but  the  greater  part  is  used  as  horse- 
food,  for  which  it  is  remarkably  adapted. 

In  Europe,  Russia  is  the  greatest  producer,  and  its 
yearly  oat  harvest  is  about  one-quarter  of  the  world's  crop. 
The  states  of  northwestern  Europe  yield  about  half  the 
entire  crop  ;  the  wheat-growing  area  of  the  United  States 

produces  the  remaining  one- 
fourth.  Russia  and  the  United 
States  are  both  exporters,  the 
grain  going  to  western  Eu- 
rope. By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  grain  is  consumed 
where  it  is  grown. 

Rice. — Rice  is  the  seed  of  a  cereal  grass,  Oryza  sativa. 
It  is  claimed  to  be  native  to  India,  but  it  is  known  to  have 


Rest  of  the  World. 


OATS 


THE  CEREALS   AND   GRASSES  103 

been  cultivated  in  China  for  more  than  five  thousand  years. 
It  grows  wild  in  Australia  and  Malaysia. 

Rice  requires  plenty  of  warmth  and  moisture.  It  is  cul- 
tivated in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  temperate  zone,  but  it 
thrives  best  in  the  tropical  regions.  In  China  a  consider- 
able upland  rice  is  grown,  but  for  the  greater  part  it  is 
grown  in  level  lowlands  that  may  be  flooded  with  water. 
The  preparation  of  the  fields  is  a  matter  of  great  expense, 
for  they  may  require  flooding  and  draining  at  a  moment's 
notice.  The  crop  matures  in  from  three  to  six  months. 
After  threshing,  the  seed  is  still  covered  with  a  husk,  and 
in  this  form  it  is  known  as  "  paddy." 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Why  is  not  wheat-growing  a  profitable  industry  in  the  New 
England  States  ? — in  the  plains  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  ? — in  the  southern  part  of  the  United  States  ? 

What  are  meant  by  the  following  terms  :  No.  1  spring,  a  cor- 
ner, a  disk  harrow,  a  cradle,  a  flail,  a  separator,  futures,  ware- 
house certificates  ? 

In  1855  the  price  of  a  barrel  of  flour  in  New  York  or  Boston 
was  about  twelve  dollars  ;  at  the  close  of  the  century  it  was  less 
than  five.     Explain  how  the  lessened  price  came  about. 

From  a  census  or  other  report  make  a  list  of  the  ten  leading 
wheat-producing  States  ;  the  ten  that  produce  the  most  corn. 

Why  are  the  foreign  shipments  of  oats  less  than  those  of  wheat  ? 

What  are  the  prices  current  of  wheat,  corn,  oats,  and  barley 
to-day  ? 

FOR  STUDY  AND   REFERENCE 

Obtain  samples  of  the  different  kinds  of  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
corn,  millet,  and  rice.  Put  the  grain  in  small,  closely  stoppered 
vials  ;  attach  the  heads  of  the  small  grains  to  sheets  of  cardboard 
of  the  proper  size. 

Read  "The  Wheat  Problem  "—Chapter  I. 


TRANSPORTING   COTTON 

FROM   WHARF, 

CHARLESTON,  S.  C. 


CHAPTEE  IX 
TEXTILE  FIBRES 

Under  the  term  "textile"  are  included  the  fibrous  sub- 
stances that  can  be  spun  into  threads,  and  woven  or  felted 
into  cloth.  Some  of  these,  like  the  covering  of  the  sheep, 
goat,  and  llama,  or  the  cocoon  of  the  silk-worm,  are  of  ani- 
mal origin  ;  others,  like  cotton  furze,  the  husk  of  the  cocoa- 
nut,  and  the  bast  of  the  flax-plant  are  vegetable  products. 
Their  use  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth  antedates  the  period 
at  which  written  history  begins ;  it  probably  begins  with 
the  time  when  primitive  man  gradually  ceased  to  have  the 
hairy  covering  necessary  to  protect  him  from  the  conditions 
of  climate  and  weather. 

As  body  coverings  all  these  substances  are  dependent 
on  a  single  principle,  namely — they  are  poor  conductors  of 
heat ;  that  is,  they  do  not  permit  the  natural  heat  of  the 
body  to  pass  away  quickly,  nor  do  they  allow  sudden 
changes  of  the  temperature  to  reach  the  body  quickly.  In 
other  words,  because  of  the  artificial  covering  which  man- 
kind alone  requires,  bodily  heat  is  not  dissipated  more 
rapidly  than  it  is  created ;  if  it  were,  the  covering  would 
be  worthless.  A  suit  of  clothes  made  of  steel  wire,  for  in- 
stance, because  it  conducts  heat  so  rapidly,  might  chill,  or 
perhaps  heat  the  body  more  quickly  than  the  open  air. 

With  respect  to  warming  qualities  wool  surpasses  all  other 
textiles.  It  is  employed  for  clothing  in  every  part  of  the 
world  and  by  nearly  all  peoples.  Cotton  is  used  mainly 
also  for  body  coverings,  but  it  is  inferior  to  wool  for  pro- 
tection against  cold.     It  is  used  by  practically  all  peoples, 

105 


106 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


savage  and  civilized,  outside  of  the  frigid  zones.  Linen  is 
inferior  both  to  cotton  and  wool  for  clothing;  its  use  is 
also  restricted  by  its  great  cost.  Silk  is  used  mainly  for 
ornamental  cloths.  Hemp  is  used  mainly  for  cordage,  and 
the  use  of  ramie,  jute,  and  sisal  hemp  is  confined  mainly 
to  the  manufacture  of  very  coarse  cloths  and  rugs. 

Cotton. — The  cotton  fibre  of  commerce  is  the  lint  sur- 
rounding the  seeds  of  several  species  of  Gossypium,  plants 


belonging  to  the  same  natural  order  as  the  marshmallow 
and  the  hollyhock.  The  cultivated  species  have  been  carried 
from  India  to  different  parts  of  the  world,  but  cotton-bear- 
ing plants  are  also  native  to  the  American.  A  native  tree- 
cotton,  known  as  Barbados  cotton,  occurs  in  the  West 
Indies ;  a  herbaceous  cotton-plant  is  known  to  have  been 
cultivated  in  Peru  long  before  the  discovery  of  Columbus. 
More  than  four  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era 
Herodotus  describes  it  and  mentions  a  gin  for  separating 


TEXTILE   FIBRES 


107 


the  lint  from  the  seed.  Nearchus,  aii  admiral  serving 
under  Alexander  the  Great,  brought  to  Europe  specimens 
of  cotton  cloth,  and  in  the  course  of  time  it  became  an 
article  of  commerce  among  Greek  and  Roman  merchants. 

The  cotton-plant  requires  warmth,  moisture,  and  a  long 
season.  It  also  thrives  best  near  the  sea.  It  grows  better, 
on  the  whole,  in  subtropical  rather  than  in  tropical  regions, 
and  the  difference  is  due  probably  to  the  longer  days  and 


cotton 
ix  the  united  states 


To  Liverpool  and  V       \ 

other  European  Ports  VI 


s 


higher  temperature  of  the  subtropical  latitudes.  In  the 
United  States  the  northern  limit  is  approximately  the 
thirty- eighth  parallel.  The  seeds  are  planted,  as  a  rule, 
during  the  first  three  weeks  of  April  and  the  first  two  of 
May.  The  plants  bloom  about  the  middle  of  June ;  the 
boll  or  pod  matures  during  July,  and  bursts  about  the  first 
of  August.     The  picking  begins  in  August. 

The  yield  and  the  quality  of  the  textile  depend  not  only 
on  conditions  of  the  soil,  but  on  locality.  In  the  river 
flood-plains  of  the  southern  United  States  the  yield  is 
about  two  bales  per  acre  ;  on  the  bluff  lands  it  is  but  little 


108  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

more  than  one,  unless  unusual  care  is  taken  in  the  prepar- 
ation of  the  land.  The  islands  off  the  Carolina  coast  pro- 
duce a  very  fine  long-staple  variety,  commercially  known 
as  sea  island  cotton.  A  district  in  China  produces  a  good 
fibre  of  brownish  color  known  as  nankeen,  named  for  the 
city  of  Nanking,  whence  formerly  it  was  exported.  The 
valley  of  Piura  River,  Peru,  produces  varieties  of  long- 
staple  cotton  that  in  quality  closely  resemble  silk. 

The  fibre  of  ordinary  American  cotton  is  about  seven- 
eighths  of  an  inch  long ;  it  is  made  into  the  fabrics  com- 
mercially known  as  "  domestics  "  and  "  prints,"  or  calico. 
If  the  fibre  averages  a  little  longer  than  the  common 
grades  it  is  reserved  for  canvas.  Ordinary  Peruvian  cotton 
has  a  fibre  nearly  two  inches  long ;  it  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  hosiery  and  balbriggan  underwear,  and  also  to 
adulterate  wool.  The  long-staple  cotton  of  the  Piura  Val- 
ley is  bought  by  British  manufacturers  at  a  high  price, 
and  used  in  the  webbing  of  rubber  tires  and  hose.  Egyp- 
tian cotton  is  very  fine  and  is  used  mainly  in  the  manu- 
facture of  thread  and  the  finer  grades  of  balbriggan  under- 
wear. Sea  island  fibre  is  nearly  two  inches  long  and  is 
used  almost  wholly  in  the  making  of  thread  and  lace. 

The  introduction  of  cotton  cultivation  resulted  in  very 
far-reaching  consequences  both  from  a  political  as  well  as 
an  economic  stand-point.  The  invention  of  the  steam- 
engine  by  Watt  gave  England  an  enormous  mechanical 
power.  To  utilize  this  the  cotton  industry  was  wrested 
from  Hindustan;  the  mills  were  concentrated  in  Man- 
chester and  Lancashire ;  the  cotton-fields  were  transferred 
to  the  United  States. 

As  a  result,  the  plains  of  Hindustan  were  strewn  with 
the  bodies  of  starved  weavers  and  spinners,  but  a  great 
industry  grew  into  existence  in  England.  The  invention 
of    spinning    machinery   by   Arkwright,    Crompton,   and 


0 

" 

8          3         4 

)         6         7         8         9 

10        11 

I     1 

Mil 

-  .     1 

COTTON 

Production  in  1898 
in  Million  Bales. 

TEXTILE  FIBRES  109 

Hargreaves,  and  the  gradual  improvement  of  the  power- 
loom,  greatly  reduced  the  cost  of  making  the  cloth  and,  at 
the  same  time,  enormously  increased  the  demand  for  it. 

In  the  United  States  the  consequences  were  far  more 
serious.  The  invention  of  the  engine  or  "  gin  "  for  sepa- 
rating the  lint  from  the  seed  made  cotton  cultivation  high- 
ly profitable.*     The  negro  slaves,  who  had  been  scattered 


United  States 

rndlH 

China 

Egypt 

Other  Countries 

throughout  the  colonies  and  the  States  that  succeeded 
them,  were  soon  drawn  to  the  cotton-growing  States  to 
supply  the  needed  field-labor;  and,  indeed,  white  work- 
men could  not  stand  the  hot,  moist  climate  of  the  cotton- 
fields. 

The  cotton-mills  grew  up  in  the  Northern  manufactur- 
ing States.  The  Northern  manufacturer  needed  a  tariff 
on  imported  goods  to  protect  him  from  European  competi- 
tion ;  the  Southern  cotton-planter  who  purchased  much  of 
his  supplies  abroad  was  hurt  by  the  tariff.  After  about 
sixty  years  of  strained  relations  between  the  two  sections 
there  occurred  the  Civil  War  which  wiped  out  nearly  one 
million  lives,  and  rolled  up  a  debt,  direct  and  indirect,  of 
nearly  six  billions  of  dollars. 

The  world's  cotton-crop  aggregates  from  twelve  million 

*  The  gin,  invented  by  Eli  Whitney  in  1793,  enabled  one  man  to  do 
by  machinery  about  the  same  amount  of  work  as  previously  had  re-, 
quired  one  hundred  laborers.  Eor  want  of  the  laws  necessary  to  protect 
his  invention,  Whitney  was  defrauded  of  the  profits  arising  from  it. 
"Neither  Congress  nor  the  courts  gave  him  any  relief  from  the  numerous 
Infringements,  and  he  died  a  poor  man. 


110  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

to  fifteen  million  bales  yearly,  of  which  the  United  States 
produces,  as  a  rule,  a  little  more  than  three-fourths.  Egypt 
is  rapidly  taking  an  important  place  among  cotton-pro- 
ducing countries,  and,  with  the  completion  of  the  various 
irrigating  canals,  will  very  soon  rank  next  to  the  United 
States.  India  ranks  about  third ;  China  and  Korea  pro- 
duce about  the  same  quantity. 


UNITED  STATES 


Rest 

of 

the 

World 


COTTON 


There  are  a  few  cotton- cloth 
mills  in  these  states,  but  in 
Japan  the  manufacture  is  in- 
creasing, the  mills  being  equipped  with  the  best  of  mod- 
ern machinery.  Brazil  has  a  small  product,  and  Russia 
in  Asia  needs  transportation  facilities  only  to  increase 
largely  its  growing  output. 

The  cotton-crop  of  the  United  States  is  quite  evenly 
distributed ;  one-third  is  manufactured  at  home ;  one-third 
is  purchased  by  Great  Britain ;  and  the  remaining  third 
goes  mainly  to  western  Europe.  In  the  past  few  years 
China  has  become  a  constantly  increasing  purchaser  of 
American  cotton.  New  Orleans,  Galveston,  Savannah,  and 
New  York  are  the  chief  ports  of  shipment.  The  imported 
Egyptian  and  Peruvian  cotton  is  landed  mainly  at  New 
York.  Most  of  the  cotton  manufacture  is  carried  on  in 
the  New  England  States,  but  there  is  a  very  rapid  exten- 
sion of  cotton  manufacture  in  the  South. 

Wool. — The  wool  of  commerce  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
fleece  of  the  common  sheep,  to  that  of  certain  species  of 
goat,  and  to  that  of  the  camel  and  its  kind.  There  is  no 
hard-and-fast  distinction  between  hair  and  wool,*  but,  in 
general,  wool  fibres  have  rough  edges,  much  resembling 
overlapping  scales  which  interlock  with  one  another  ;  hair, 
as  a  rule,  has  a  hard,  smooth  surface.     If  a  mass  of  loose 

*  The  commercial  distinction  is  a  sensible  one :  hair  is  hard,  crisp, 
straight,  and  does  not  felt;  wool  is  soft,  curly,  and  felts  readily. 


TEXTILE   FIBRES 


111 


wool  be  spread  out  and  beaten,  or  if  it  be  pressed  between 
rollers,  the  fibres  interlock  so  closely  that  there  results  a 
thick,  strong  cloth  which  has  been  made  without  either 
spinning  or  weaving. 

This  property,  known  as  "  felting,"  gives  to  wool  a  great 
part  of  its  value,  and  is  its  chief  distinction  from  hair. 
Some  kinds  of  hair,  however,  have  a  slight  felting  property, 
and  if  sufficiently  fine  may  be  spun  and  woven.  The  hair 
of  the  common  goat  is  worthless  for  this  purpose,  but  that 


of  the  Cashmere  and  Angora  species  have  the  properties  of 
wool.  The  hair  of  the  Bactrian  camel,  and  also  that  of  the 
llama,  alpaca,  and  vicuna  is  soft  and  fine,  possessing  felting 
qualities  that  make  it  very  superior  as  a  textile. 

The  quality  of  wool  varies  greatly  according  to  the  con- 
ditions of  soil,  climate,  and  the  character  of  the  food  of  the 
animal.  In  commerce,  however,  the  fleeces  are  commonly 
graded  as  "long-staple,"  "short-staple,"  "merino,"  and 
"  coarse." 

In  long-staple  wools  the  fibres  are  from   four   to  eight 


112  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

inches  long ;  they  are  more  easily  separated  by  a  process 
much  like  combing,  and  are  therefore  called  "  combing  " 
wools.  The  cotswold,  cheviot,  and  most  of  the  wools  of 
the  British  Isles  are  of  this  kind ;  indeed,  in  fairly  moist 
lowland  regions  such  as  Canada  and  the  United  States, 
there  is  a  tendency  toward  the  development  of  a  long-sta- 
ple product.  The  English  long-staple  wools  are  largely 
made  into  worsted  cloth,  the  Scotch  cheviot  into  tweeds, 
and  the  French  into  the  best  dress  cloth. 

If  the  fibres  are  materially  less  than  four  inches  in 
length,  the  product  is  classed  as  a  short-staple  or  "  card- 
ing "  wool.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  wool  of  the 
United  States,  Canada,  and  Europe  is  of  this  class.  It  is 
disposed  of  according  to  its  fineness  or  fitness  for  special 
purposes,  the  greater  part  being  made  into  cloths  for  the 
medium  grades  of  men's  clothing. 

The  finest  and  softest  wool  as  a  rule  is  grown  in  arid, 
plateau  regions,  and  of  this  kind  of  staple  the  merino  is  an 
example.  The  fibres  are  fine  as  silk,  and  the  goods  made 
from  them  are  softer.  The  Mission  wool  of  California  is 
the  product  of  merino  sheep,  and,  indeed,  the  conditions  of 
climate  in  southern  California  and  Australia  are  such  as 
to  produce  the  best  merino  wool.  The  famous  Electoral 
wool  of  Saxony  is  a  merino,  the  sheep  having  been  intro- 
duced into  that  country  from  Spain  about  three  hundred 
years  ago.  The  merino  wools,  as  a  rule,  are  used  in  the 
most  highly  finished  dress  and  fancy  goods. 

The  coarse-staple  wools  are  very  largely  used  for  Ameri- 
can carpets,  coarse  blankets,  and  certain  kinds  of  heavy 
outer  clothing.  The  Russian  Donskoi  wool,  some  of  the 
Argentine  fleeces,  such  as  the  Corcloban,  and  many  of 
those  grown  in  wet  lowlands  are  very  coarse  and  harsh. 
The  quality  is  due  more  to  climatic  conditions  and  food 
than  to  the  species  of  sheep  ;  indeed,  sheep  that  in  other 


SHEEP  IN    FEEDING  YARD 
THE  WOOL-GROWING   INDUSTRY 


114 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


regions  produce  a  fine  wool,  when  introduced  to  this  local- 
ity, after  a  few  generations  produce  coarse  wool. 

The  rug  wools  grown  in  Persia,  Turkestan,  Turkey  in 
Asia,  and  the  Caucasus  Mountains  are  also  characteristic. 
They  vary  in  fineness,  and  because  they  do  not  readily  felt 
they  are  the  best  in  the  world  for  rug  stock.  The  "pile" 
or  surface  of  the  rug  remains  elastic  and  stands  upright 
even  after  a  hundred  years  of  wear.  This  quality  is  due 
mainly  to  conditions  of  climate  and  soil. 

In  some  instances  the  wool  is  obtained  by  a  daily  comb- 
ing of  the  half-grown  lambs.     This  process,  however,  is 


Argentina  and  PTate 
Hirer  region. 
Russian  Empire 


United  States  and 
Canada 

States  of  Mediter- 
ranean basin 

Asiatic  Turkey, 

India,  Russia,  etc. 

tireat  Britain. and 

Ireland 

Germany  and  Austria 

South  Africa 

Other  Countries 


1 

WOOL 

Production  in  1900 

employed  in  the  rug-making  districts  only  ;  in  general, 
the  fleeces  are  clipped  either  with  shears  or  machine  clip- 
pers. In  the  United  States  the  latter  are  generally  em- 
ployed, and  but  little  attempt  is  made  either  to  sort  the 
fleeces  or  to  separate  the  various  qualities  of  wool  in  the 
same  fleece. 

The  raw  wool  always  contains  foreign  matter  such  as 
burs  and  dirt ;  it  is  also  saturated  with  a  natural  oil  which 
prevents  felting.  The  oil,  commonly  called  "grease,"  or 
"yolk,"  is  an  important  article  of  commerce;  under  the 
name  of  "  lanolin  "  (adeps  lance)  it  is  used  in  medicine  and 
pharmacy  as  a  basis  for  ointments. 


U.S. 


Rest  of  the  World 


WOOL 


TEXTILE    FIBRES  115 

The  world's  yearly  clip  is  a  little  more  than  two  and  one- 
hall  billion  pounds,  of  which  the  United  States  produces 
about  one-eighth.  In  Europe  and  the  United  States,  ow- 
ing to  the  increasing  value  of  the  land,  the  area  of  pro- 
duction is  decreasing  ;  in  Australia,  South  Africa,  and  Ar- 
gentina, where  land  is  cheap, 
it  is  increasing.  From  these 
three  regions  wool  is  exported ; 
most  European  countries  and 
the  United  States  buy  it.  In  the  latter  country  the  con- 
sumption is  about  six  pounds  for  each  person. 

The  wools  of  the  Mediterranean  countries— France, 
Spain,  Italy,  Algiers,  Egypt,  etc.— are  the  best  for  fine 
cloths;  those  of  central  Asia  for  rugs  and  shawls;  the 
others  are  used  mainly  in  medium  and  low  grade  textiles. 

Other  Wools.— The  Angora  goat,  originally  grown  in 
Anatolia  (Asia  Minor),  and  the  Iran  States  (Persia,  Af- 
ghanistan, and  Baluchistan),  furnishes  a  beautiful  white 
wool,  commercially  known  as  "mohair."  Smyrna  is  an 
important  market  for  it,  and  England  is  the  chief  buyer. 
The  Angora  goat  has  been  introduced  into  South  Africa 
and  California,  where  it  is  successfully  grown.  From  the 
former  country  there  is  a  large  export  of  mohair. 

Cashmere  wool  is  a  fine,  downy  undercovering,  obtained 
by  combing  the  fleece  of  a  goat  native  to  the  Kashmir  Val- 
ley in  India.  A  single  animal  yields  scarcely  more  than 
an  ounce  or  two,  and  the  best  product  is  worth  about  its 
weight  in  gold.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  fa- 
mous Cashmere  shawls,  which  are  sold  at  prices  varying 
from  five  hundred  to  five  thousand  dollars.  They  are 
made  in  Persia  and  India. 

Llama  and  alpaca  wool  are  fine  textile  obtained  from 
animals  of  the  camel  kind  native  to  South  America.  The 
wool  is  either  black  or  brown  in  color.     A  considerable 


116  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

part  is  used  for  native-made  articles,  such  as  saddle-blan- 
kets, etc.,  but  much  of  it  is  exported  to  England. 

Most  of  the  "camel's  hair"  of  commerce  was  originally 
worn  by  goats,  being  called  by  its  commercial  name  be- 
cause of  a  similarity  in  texture  to  that  of  the  camel's  hair. 
The  camel  of  Turkestan,  however,  furnishes  a  silky  textile 
that  is  much  used.  The  brown  wool  often  found  in  Ham- 
adan  rugs  is  natural  camel's  hair,  and  a  considerable  amount 
mixed  with  sheep's  wool  is  used  in  certain  textiles.  The 
camel's  hair  of  China  is  made  into  artists'  brushes. 

Silk. — The  silk  of  commerce  is  the  fibre  spun  by  the 
larvae  or  caterpillars  of  a  moth,  Bombyx  mori,  as  they 
enter  the  chrysalis  stage  of  existence.  The  silk-growing 
industry  includes  the  care  and  feeding  of  the  insect  in  all 
its  stages.  The  leaves  of  the  white  mulberry-tree  {morns 
alba)  are  the  natural  food  of  the  insect,  and  silk-growing 
cannot  be  carried  on  in  regions  where  this  tree  does  not 
thrive.  Not  all  areas  that  produce  the  mulberry-tree, 
however,  will  also  grow  the  silk -worm  ;  the  latter  cannot 
exist  in  regions  having  very  cold  winters,  and  therefore  the 
industry  is  restricted  by  climate. 

The  moth,  shortly  after  emerging  from  the  chrysalis 
stage,  lays  from  two  or  three  hundred  to  seven  hundred 
eggs.  These  are  "hardy  " — that  is,  they  will  remain  fertile 
for  a  long  time  if  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  place ;  moisture  will 
cause  them  to  putrify,  and  heat  to  germinate.  If  well  pro- 
tected, they  may  be  transported  for  distances. 

In  rearing  the  silk-worm,  as  soon  as  the  latter  is  hatched, 
it  is  placed  on  mulberry-leaves,  and  for  five  weeks  it  doeh 
nothing  but  eat,  in  that  time  consuming  many  times  its 
weight  of  food.*     Then  it  begins  to  spin  the  material  that 

*  An  ounce  of  eggs  produces  about  forty  thousand  worms,  and  these, 
during  the  grub  stage,  require  about  fifteen  hundred  pounds  of  leaves, 
about  one-half  of  which  is  actually  consumed. 


Copyright,  1898,  by  Nature  Study  Pub.  Co. 


1.  Silkworm  Eggs. 

2.  Fourth-stage  Worm. 

3.  Pupa  in  Cocoon. 

4.  Cocoon. 


SILK   INDUSTRY 


5.  Male  Moth. 

6.  Female  Moth. 

7.  Unspun  Silk. 

8.  Raw  Manufactured  Silk 

9.  Manufactured  Silk. 


118 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


forms  its  chrysalis  case  or  cocoon.  The  outer  part  of  the 
case  consists  of  a  tough  envelope  not  uulike  coarse  tissue- 
paper  ;  the  inner  part  is  a  fine  thread  about  one  thousand 
feet  long  that  has  been  wound  around  the  body  of  the 
worm.  This  thread  or  filament  is  the  basis  of  the  silk 
textile  industry. 

At  the  proper  time  the  cocoons  are  gathered  and,  if 
immediately  to  be  used,  are  plunged  into  hot  water.    This 


not  only  kills  the  chrysalids  but  softens  the  cocoons  as 
well,  so  that  the  outer  cases  may  be  removed.  The  cases 
removed,  the  rest  of  the  cocoon  is  soaked  in  warm  water 
until  the  gummy  matter  is  softened  and  the  fibres  are  free 
enough  to  be  reeled.  In  the  latter  process  the  ends  of  a 
number  of  cocoons,  varying  from  five  to  twenty,  are  caught 
and  loosely  twisted  into  a  single  strand.  The  silk  thus 
prepared  forms  the  "  raw  silk  "  of  commerce.  Sometimes 
a  number  of  strands  of  raw  silk  are  twisted  into  a  coarse 
thread,  thereby  forming  "thrown  silk."     For  convenience 


TEXTILE   FIBRES 


119 


in  handling,  both  raw  and  thrown  silk  are  made  into  large 
skeins  called  hanks,  and  most  of  the  silk  product  is  ex- 
ported in  this  form. 

A  given  quantity  of  cocoons  yields  scarcely  more  than 
one-tenth  its  weight  in  good  raw  silk.  The  remaining 
part,  consisting  of  broken  fibres  and  cases,  is  shredded  and 
spun  into  silk  thread  of  inferior  quality.  This  material, 
commonly  called  "  husks  "  or  "  knubs,"  forms  an  impor- 
tant item  in  silk  manufacture,  and  much  of  it  is  exported 
to  Europe  and  America. 

According  to  traditions,  not  wholly  trustworthy,  eggs  of 
the  silk- worm  were  smuggled  to  India  in  the  head-dress  of 
a  Chinese  princess.  Thence  sericulture  slowly  made  its 
way  westward  to  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Mediterra- 
nean countries.  Wild  silk,  a  coarse  but  strong  product,  is 
grown  in  many  of  these  countries,  but  mainly  in  China, 
where  it  forms  an  important  export.  The  Chinese  prod- 
uct is  commercially  known  as   "  tussar "   silk.      Of   the 


< 

2 

t 

6 

8             10            12      ,      H    16 

China 

I    II    I    II    | 

Japan 

Italy 

Turklsli  Coast 

Trance 

Spain 

IikMh 

SILK 

Production  in  1900 
in  Millions  Pounds. 

product  of  raw  silk,  about  thirty-five  million  pounds,  China 
yields  about  two-fifths,  Japan  and  Italy  each  one-fifth. 
The  remainder  is  grown  in  the  Levant,  Spain,  and  France. 
Most  of  the  raw  silk  of  China  is  exported  from  Shang- 
hai and  Canton  ;  that  of  Japan  is  shipped  mainly  from 
Yokohama.  Among  European  countries  Italy  is  the  first 
producer  of  raw  silk,  and  France  the  chief  manufacturer. 


120  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

By  the  operation  of  a  heavy  tariff  a  considerable  manu- 
facture of  silk  textiles  has  grown  up  in  the  United  States. 
New  York  City  and  Paterson,  N.  J.,  are  the  chief  cen- 
tres of  the  industry. 

The  southern  part  of  the  United  States  offers  an  ideal 
locality  for  sericulture.  Various  attempts  at  silk-worm 
breeding  have  failed  from  lack  of  training,  but  not  on  ac- 
count of  geographic  conditions. 

Flax. — The  flax  of  commerce,  the  basis  of  linen  cloth,  is 
the  bast  or  inner  bark-fibre  of  an  annual  plant  (Linum  usi- 
tatissimum,  i.e.,  most  useful  fibre),  native  probably  to  the 
Mediterranean  basin.  It  ranks  among  the  oldest  known 
textiles.  Bundles  of  unwrought  fibre  have  been  found  in 
the  lake  dwellings  of  Switzerland,  and  linen  cloth  consti- 
tuted a  part  of  the  sepulture  wrappings  of  the  ancient 
Egyptian  dead. 

Flax  has  a  very  wide  range,  thriving  in  the  colder  parts 
of  Europe  as  well  as  in  tropical  Asia ;  it  does  equally  well 
in  the  dry  summers  of  California  or  the  moist  regions 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The  chief  requisite  is  a  firm 
soil  that  contains  plenty  of  nutrition. 

After  the  stalks  have  passed  maturity  they  are  pulled  up 
by  hand  ;  "  rippled,"  or  deprived  of  their  seeds  and  leaves  ; 
"  retted,"  or  moistened  in  soft  water  until  the  bast  sepa- 
rates ;  "  broken  "  and  "  scutched  "  by  a  machine  which 
gets  rid  of  the  woody  fibres ;  and  finally  the  loosened  bast 
fibre  is  "  hetcheled  "  or  combed  in  order  to  separate  the 
long,  or  "  line,"  threads  from  the  "  tow  "  or  refuse. 

Russia  produces  more  than  one-half  the  world's  crop, 
but  the  finest  and  choicest  is  that  known  as  Courtrai  fibre, 
which  is  grown  in  Belgium.  This  is  thought  to  be  due  to 
the  quality  of  the  water  in  the  Lys  River.  A  consider- 
able amount  of  flax  grown  elsewhere  in  Europe  is  sent 
to  this  part  of  Belgium  to  be  retted.     Ireland  and  Ger- 


TEXTILE   FIBRES  121 

many  produce  considerable  amounts,  and  a  small  quantity 
is  grown  in  the  United  States. 

The  prepared  flax  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  linen 
cloth,  and  the  latter  is  almost  exclusively  used  for  table- 
cloths, napkins,  shirt-bosoms,  collars,  cuffs,  and  handker- 
chiefs. France  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  linen  lawns 
and  cambrics,  and  Belfast,  Ireland,  for  table-cloths  and 
napkins.  Nearly  the  whole  linen  product  is  consumed  in 
the  United  States,  Canada,  and  western  Europe ;  indeed, 
linen  is  a  mark  of  western  civilization.  Great  Britain 
handles  the  greater  part  of  the  linen  textiles. 

Hemp. — The  true  hemp  of  commerce  is  the  bast  or 
inner  bark  of  a  plant,  Cannabis  sativa,  belonging  to  the 
nettle  order.  It  is  an  annual  plant  having  a  very  wide 
range ;  it  occurs  in  pretty  nearly  every  country  of  North 
America,  Europe,  and  Asia.  In  Europe  the  chief  countries 
producing  it  for  commercial  uses  are  Russia,  France,  Italy, 
and  Hungary ;  in  the  United  States  it  is  grown  in  Califor- 
nia and  the  central  Mississippi  Valley.  Russia  produces 
the  largest  crop ;  Italy  the  finest  quality  of  fibre,  the  best 
coming  from  the  vicinity  of  Bologna. 

The  stalks  grow  three  feet  or  more  in  height.  When 
cultivated  for  the  fibre  they  are  pulled  from  the  ground, 
stripped  of  their  leaves  and  soaked  until  the  fibre  is  free. 
They  are  then  "retted,"  or  beaten,  and  the  fibre  is  removed. 
After  preparation  the  fibre  is  used  mainly  for  the  manu- 
facture of  wrapping-twine,  cordage,  and  a  coarse  canvas. 
Great  Britain  is  the  chief  purchaser  and  manufacturer. 

Manila  Hemp. — Manila  hemp  is  the  name  given  to  a 
fibre  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  a  plant,  Musa  textilis, 
belonging  to  the  banana  family.  The  best  fibres  are  from 
six  to  nine  feet  in  length,  of  light  amber  color,  and  very 
strong.  The  leaves,  torn  into  narrow  strips  by  hand,  are 
afterward  scraped  by  hand  until  the  fibre  is  free  of  pulp. 


122  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  long  and  coarser  fibres  are  made  into  rope;  the 
shorter  fibres  are  beaten  and  hetcheled  in  the  same  manner 
as  flax,  until  fine  enough  to  weave  into  mats,  carpets,  and 
fine  cloth.  The  fibres  that  have  served  their  usefulness  as 
rope  are  pulped  and  manufactured  into  manila  paper. 

Practically  all  the  manila  fibre  of  commerce — which  is 
not  hemp  at  all — is  grown  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  and 
since  peace  has  prevailed,  the  growth  and  production  is  in- 
creasing. The  crude  fibre  is  prepared  by  hand,  by  Filipino 
or  by  Chinese  labor.  The  manufacture  of  cordage  and 
paper  is  done  mainly  in  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain.  Fine  hand-made  textiles  are  made  by  a  few  Fili- 
pino natives,  but  most  of  the  goods  of  this  character  are 
manufactured  in  France.  Very  fine  fibre  is  sometimes  used 
as  an  adulterant  of  silk.  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  are  the  chief  purchasers. 

Sisal  Hemp. — Sisal  hemp,  or  henequen,  is  a  stout, 
stringy  fibre  obtained  from  the  thick  leaves  of  several  spe- 
cies of  agave,  to  which  the  maguey  and  century-plant  be- 
long. The  cultivated  species,  from  which  most  of  the 
commercial  product  is  obtained,  is  the  Agave  sisalina,  which 
much  resembles  the  ordinary  century-plant. 

The  essential  feature  in  the  economic  production  of  sisal 
hemp  is  machinery  for  separating  the  fibre  from  the  pulp 
of  the  leaf.  The  fibre  is  whiter,  cleaner,  and  lighter  than 
jute  ;  moreover,  in  strength  it  ranks  next  to  the  best  quality 
of  manila  hemp.  It  is  used  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of 
grain-sacks,  and  the  twine  used  on  self -bin  ding  harvesters. 
Nearly  all  the  fibre  of  commerce  is  grown  in  the  Mexican 
state  of  Yucatan  and  consumed  in  the  United  States.  The 
cultivation  of  this  material  has  made  Yucatan  one  of  the 
most  prosperous  states  of  Mexico. 

Jute. — Jute  is  a  fibre  obtained  from  the  inner  bark  of  a 
tropical  plant,  Corchorus  olitorius,  belonging  to  the  same 


TEXTILE   FIBRES  123 

order  as  the  linden-tree.  The  plant  is  an  animal,  growing 
in  various  moist,  tropical  countries,  but  is  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  India  and  parts  of  China  for  commercial  pur- 
poses. The  fibre  is  prepared  for  manufacture  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  hemp  and  flax.  In  India  it  is  used 
mainly  for  the  manufacture  of  a  coarse  textile  known  as 
gunny  cloth,  used  as  bale-wrappers,  and  sacks  for  coffee 
and  rice.  On  the  Pacific  coast  states  it  is  used  for  wheat- 
sacks.  Calcutta  is  the  chief  centre  of  manufacture,  but 
jute-sacks  are  extensively  manufactured  by  the  Chinese 
in  California  and  China. 

Ramie. — This  fibre,  also  known  as  China  grass,  is  the 
best  of  two  or  more  species  of  nettles,  prepared  in  the 
same  manner  as  hemp  fibre.  It  is  finer  and  stronger  than 
jute,  and  will  take  dye-stuffs  in  a  superior  manner.  With 
the  introduction  of  machinery  for  separating  and  handling 
the  fibre,  the  cultivation  of  the  ramie-plant  has  spread  from 
China  to  India,  Japan,  and  the  United  States.  Fine  tex- 
tiles are  now  manufactured  from  it,  the  most  important 
being  carpets,  mattings,  and  American  "  Smyrna  "  rugs. 
The  last  are  generally  sold  as  jute-rugs,  and  they  are 
nearly  as  durable  as  woollen  floor-covers. 

Other  Economic  Fibres.— The  fibre  of  cocoanut  hush  is 
largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  matting.  A 
part  of  this  is  obtained  from  tropical  America,  but  it  is  a 
regular  export  of  British  India,  where  it  is  known  as  coir. 

The  midrib  of  the  screiv  pine  growing  in  the  forests  of 
tropical  America  furnishes  the  material  of  which  "Panama" 
hats  are  made.  The  hats  are  made  in  various  parts  of 
Ecuador,  Venezuela,  and  Colombia,  and  were  formerly 
marketed  in  Panama.  Hats  made  of  a  score  of  grasses  and 
fibres  are  also  sold  as  Panamas. 

A  plant  (PJwrmium  tenax)  having  leaves  somewhat  like 
those  of  the  iris  or  common  flag  furnishes  the  material  of 


124  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

which  New  Zealand  flax  is  prepared.  It  is  used  mainly  in 
the  manufacture  of  cordage. 

Plaiting  straw,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hats  and 
bonnets,  is  grown  extensively  in  northern  Italy  and  in 
Belgium.  For  this  product  spring  wheat  is  very  thickly 
sown  in  a  soil  rich  in  lime.  The  thick  sowing  produces 
a  long,  slender  stalk;  the  lime  gives  it  whiteness  and 
strength.  Plaiting  straw  is  also  exported  from  China  and 
Japan.     British  merchants  handle  most  of  the  product. 

Cuba  bast,  a  fibre  readily  bleached  to  whiteness,  is  ex- 
ported to  the  various  establishments  in  which  women's 
hats  are  made. 

Esparto  grass,  also  called  alfa,  grows  in  Spain  and  the 
northern  part  of  Africa.  It  was  formerly  much  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  cheaper  grades  of  paper,  but  it  has 
been  largely  supplanted  by  wood-pulp  for  this  purpose. 
The  decline  of  the  esparto  grass  industry  led  to  no  little 
unrest  among  some  of  the  native  tribes  of  northern  Africa. 

QUESTIONS    FOR    DISCUSSION 

What  fibres  were  used  in  cloth-making  in  Europe  before  cot- 
ton was  employed  ? 

What  textiles  are  of  necessity  made  of  cotton  ? 

What  is  a  spinning  jenny  ?— a  Jacquard  loom  ? 

What  are  the  specific  differences  between  cotswold  and  merino 
wool  ? 

Why  were  most  of  the  cloth-making  mills  of  the  United  States 
built  at  first  in  the  New  England  States? 

How  is  the  silk-making  industry  encouraged  in  the  United 
States  ? 

What  are  the  chief  linen  manufacturing  countries  ? 

FOR    STUDY    AND    REFERENCE 

Obtain  specimens  of  the  cotton  seed,  boll,  raw  cotton  (sea 
island,  Peruvian,  and  ordinary),  cotton  thread,  calico,  gingham, 


TEXTILE   FIBRES  125 

domestic,  canvas,  and  some  of  the  fancy  textiles  such  as  organ- 
die, lawn,  etc. 

Obtain  specimens  of  the  cocoons  of  the  silk-worm,  raw  silk 
gros-grain  cloth,  pongee,  and  tussar  silk  cloth. 

Obtain  also  specimens  of  merino  cloth,  cashmere,  cheviot,  and 
other  similar  goods  ;  compare  them  and  note  the  difference. 

Examine  the  fibres  of  cotton,  silk,  and  wool  under  a  micro' 
scope  and  note  the  difference. 


\ 


BRANCH   OF   COFFEE   TREE, 
WEST   BRAZIL 


COFFEE   PLANTATION   NEAR  JOLO, 
PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS 


COFFEE   DRYING   FIELD,  BRAZIL 


CHAPTEE  X 

PLANT   PRODUCTS    OF    ECONOMIC    USE  — BEVERAGES 
AND   MEDICINAL   SUBSTANCES 

It  may  be  assumed  that  practically  all  beverages  derived 
from  plants  owe  their  popularity  to  the  stimulant  effects 
they  produce.  In  coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  and  mate,  the  stimu- 
lant principle  is  identical  with  cafein,  the  active  principle 
of  coffee;  in  liquors  it  is  a  powerful  narcotic  alcohol;  non- 
potable  substances,  tobacco,  opium,  etc.,  owe  their  popu- 
larity also  to  narcotic  poisons. 

Coffee. — The  coffee  "beans"  of  commerce  are  the  seeds 
of  a  tree  (Coffea  arabica)  probably  native  to  Abyssinia,  but 
now  cultivated  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  It  was  in- 
troduced into  Aden  from  Africa  late  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  from  there  its  use  spread  to  other  cities.  Eather 
singularly  its  popularity  resulted  from  the  strong  efforts 
made  to  forbid  its  use. 

It  was  regarded  as  a  stimulant  and  therefore  it  was  for- 
bidden to  followers  of  Islam.'55'  But  its  power  to  prevent 
drowsiness  and  sleep  during  the  intolerably  long  religious 
exercises  was  a  winning  feature,  and  so  its  use  became  gen- 
eral in  spite  of  the  fulminations  against  it. 

Coffee  culture  was  confined  to  Arabia  until  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century ;  it  was  then  introduced  into  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  and  for  many  years  the  island  of  Java 

*  Charles  II.  of  England  also  forbade  its  use  (1675)  and  attempted  to 
close  the  coffee-houses  that  had  sprung  up  in  London,  but  in  spite  of  the 
ban  and  the  prohibitive  tax  laid  upon  it,  the  use  of  coffee  became  general. 
Similar  efforts  to  close  the  coffee-houses  in  Constantinople  failed. 

127 


128 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


became  the  main  supply  of  the  world.  At  the  present  time, 
Java  is  second  only  to  Brazil  in  coffee  production.  In  the 
Old  World  it  is  now  also  cultivated  along  the  Guinea  coast 
of  Africa,  in  Madagascar,  India,  and  Ceylon.  In  the  New 
World  the  chief  areas  are  Brazil,  Venezuela,  the  Central 
American  States,  and  the  West  Indies. 

The  coffee-tree  may  be  cultivated  in  almost  any  soil 
that  is  fertile ;  it  thrives  best,  however,  in  red  soil.  Old, 
decomposed  red  lavas  produce  the  choicest  beans.     Coffee 


grows  in  any  moist  climate  in  which  the  temperature  does 
not  range  higher  than  80°  F.  nor  lower  than  55°  F.  An 
occasional  frost  injures  but  does  not  necessarily  kill  the 
trees,  which  grow  better  in  the  shade  than  in  the  sunlight. 
For  convenience  in  gathering  the  crop,  the  trees  are  pruned 
until  they  are  not  higher  than  bushes. 

The  fruit  of  the  coffee-tree  is  a  deep-red  berry  not  quite 
so  large  as  a  cherry.  A  juicy  pulp  encloses  a  double  mem- 
brane, or  endocarp,  and  within  the  latter  are  the  seeds 
which  constitute  the  coffee  of  commerce.  Normally  there 
are  two  seeds,  but  in  some  varieties  there  is  a  tendency  for 


PLANT  PRODUCTS  OF  ECONOMIC  USE      129 

one  seed  to  mature,  leaving  the  other  undeveloped  ;  this 
is  the  "peaberry"  coffee  of  commerce.  The  so-called 
Mocha  coffee  is  a  peaberry. 

In  their  preparation  the  berries  are  picked  when  ripe 
and  deprived  of  their  pulp.  After  pulping  they  are  cured 
in  the  sun  for  about  a  week  and  then  hulled,  or  divested 
of  the  endocarp,  a  process  requiring  expensive  machinery. 
The  coffee  is  then  cleaned,  and  sacked. 

The  value  of  the  product  depends  on  two  factors,  age 
and  the  care  with  which  it  is  sorted.  Formerly,  in  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  coffee-growing,  for  the  greater  part, 
was  a  government  privilege,  and  the  crop  was  kept  for 
several  years  in  storage  before  it  was  permitted  to  be  sold — 
therefore  the  term  "  Old  Government  "  Java.  Other  cof- 
fee was  designated  as  "Private  Plantations."  The  quality 
of  coffee  is  greatly  improved  with  age.  Brazilian  and  other 
American  coffee-beans  are  rarely  seasoned  by  storage. 

American  coffees  are  almost  wholly  sorted  by  machin- 
ery. This  process,  however,  merely  collects  beans  of  the 
same  size ;  it  still  leaves  the  good  and  the  bad  beans  to- 
gether, though  it  is  to  be  said  that  among  the  largest  beans 
there  are  fewer  poor  ones.  In  the  coffees  handled  by  the 
Arab  dealers  all  the  sorting  is  done  by  hand,  the  very 
choice  grade  selling  in  the  large  cities  of  Europe  for  the 
equivalent  of  nearly  three  dollars  per  pound.  All  machine- 
sorted  coffee  is  greatly  improved  by  a  subsequent  hand- 
sorting  to  remove  the  imperfect  beans. 

The  naming  of  the  different  kinds  of  coffee  is  somewhat 
arbitrary.  Thus,  Brazilian  coffees  are  commercially  known 
as  Rio  because  they  are  shipped  from  the  port  of  Bio  de 
Janeiro  ;  the  same  name  is  applied  to  the  product  shipped 
from  Santos.  Nearly  all  Venezuela  coffees  are  called 
Maracaibo  although  they  differ  much  in  kind  and  quality  ; 
most  Central  American  coffee  is  sold  as  Costa  Rica  ;  most 


130 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


peaberry  varieties  are  known  as  Mocha  ;  and  most  of  the 
East  India  product  is  popularly  called  Java,  no  matter 
whence  it  comes. 

Of  the  American  coffees  Rio  constitutes  about  half  the 
world's  product.  After  sorting,  the  larger  beans  are  often 
marketed  as  Java  coffee,  and  when  the  beans  have  been 
roasted  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  tell  the  difference.  The 
best  Maracaibo  is  regarded  as  choice  coffee,  but  its  flavor  is 
not  liked  by  all  coffee-drinkers.  The  best  Honduras  and 
Puerto  Rico  coffees  take  a  high  rank  and  command  very 
high  prices,  retailing  in  some  instances  at  sixty  cents  per 


100   200   300   400   BOO   COO   700 


900   1000  1100  1200 


Brazil 

Cent.  America 

Venezuela 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Mexico 

llalti  &.  S.Doiuingo 

Porto  Rico 

Other  Countries 


1 

.1 

1    ■     i                       j 

COFFEE 

Production  in  1899-1900 
in  Hundred  Million  Pounds. 

— 

pound.  A  very  choice  peaberry  is  grown  in  the  volcanic 
soils  of  Mexico  to  which  the  name  of  Oaxaca  is  given  ;  most 
of  it  is  sold  in  the  United  States  as  a  choice  Mocha. 

Mocha  is  the  commercial  name  of  a  coffee  at  one  time 
marketed  in  the  Arabian  city  of  that  name.  Since  the 
completion  of  the  Suez  Canal,  Hodeida  has  been  the  chief 
centre  of  the  Arabian  coffee-trade.  Formerly  most  of  this 
coffee  was  grown  in  the  Province  of  Yemen,  but  now  it  is 
brought  to  Hodeida,  from  Egypt,  Ceylon,  and  India. 

About  all  the  product  is  hand-sorted.  The  choicest  is 
sold  in  Constantinople,  Cairo,  and  other  cities  near  by,  in 
some  instances  bringing  five  dollars  per  pound.  Very  little, 
and  only  that  of  the  most  inferior  quality,  ever  finds  its 


PLANT  PRODUCTS  OF  ECONOMIC  USE      131 

way  into  western  Europe  or  the  United  States.  Even  the 
best  Mocha  is  not  superior  to  fine  Oaxaca  coffee. 

Java  coffee  is  renowned  the  world  over  for  its  fine  flavor. 
The  best  quality  was  formerly  that  which  had  been  held  in 
storage  to  season  for  a  few  years.  The  government  coffee 
was  generally  the  better,  but  some  of  the  private  planta- 
tions crop  is  now  equally  good.  Some  of  the  Sumatra  cof- 
fees are  equal  to  the  best  Java  beans. 

The  Liberia  coffees  have  never  been  favorites  in  the 
United  States  on  account  of  their  flavor.  In  Europe  they 
are  used  for  blending  with  other  varieties. 

Of  the  entire  coffee-crop  of  the  world,  the  United  States 
consumes  more  than  three-quarters  of  a  billion  pounds — a 
yearly  average  of  very  nearly  eleven  pounds  for  each  in- 
habitant. This  is  nearly  three  times  as  much  per  inhab- 
itant as  is  consumed  in  Germany,  and  almost  fifteen  times 
the  average  used  in  Great  Britain.  Nearly  all  the  world's 
crop  is  consumed  in  the  United  States  and  western  Europe. 

Chicory,  parched  grain,  pease,  and  burnt  parsnip  are 
sometimes  added  as  adulterants  to  ground  coffee.  Of  those, 
chicory  most  nearly  resembles  coffee  in  flavor  and  taste. 
It  is  harmless  and  usually  improves  the  flavor  of  inferior 
coffee.  A  tariff  recently  placed  upon  chicory  has  some- 
what lessened  the  use  of  it. 

Tea.— The  tea  of  commerce  consists  of  the  dried  and 
prepared  leaves  of  an  evergreen  shrub  (Thea  chinensis) 
belonging  most  probably  to  the  camellia  family.  Tea  has 
been  a  commercial  product  of  China  for  more  than  four- 
teen hundred  years,  but  seems  to  have  been  carried  thither 
from  India  about  five  hundred  years  before  the  Christian 
era ;  for  its  virtues  were  praised  by  (the  probably  mythi- 
cal) Chiming,  an  emperor  of  that  period. 

The  cultivated  plants  are  scarcely  higher  than  bushes, 
but   the  wild  plant   found   in  India  is  a  tree  fifteen  or 


132  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

twenty  feet  in  height.  The  cultivated  plant  is  quite  hardy  ; 
severe  winters  kill  it  but  ordinary  freezing  weather  merely 
retards  its  growth.  It  thrives  best  in  red,  mouldy  soils ; 
the  choicest  varieties  are  grown  in  new  soils.  The  leaves 
are  not  picked  until  the  plants  are  three  or  four  years  old. 

Two  general  classes  of  tea  are  known  in  commerce — the 
green  and  the  black.  Formerly  these  were  grown  on  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  the  plant,  but  in  the  newer  plantations 
no  distinction  is  made  in  the  matter  of  variety ;  the  color 
is  due  wholly  to  the  manner  of  preparation. 

The  plants  are  watched  carefully  during  the  seasons  of 
picking,  of  which  there  are  three  or  four  each  year.  The 
April  picking  yields  the  choicest  crop  of  leaves,  and  only 
the  youngest  leaves  and  buds  are  taken.*  A  single  plant 
rarely  yields  more  than  four  or  five  ounces  of  tea  yearly. 
Each  acre  of  a  tea-garden  yields  about  three  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds. 

After  picking,  the  leaves  are  partly  crushed  and  allowed 
to  wilt  until  they  begin  to  turn  brown  in  color.  They 
are  then  rolled  between  the  hands  and  either  dried  very 
slowly  in  the  sun,  or  else  rapidly  in  pans  over  a  charcoal 
fire — a  process  known  as  "  firing."  The  former  method 
produces  black,  the  latter  green,  tea.  The  color  of  the 
latter  is  sometimes  heightened  by  the  use  of  a  mixture  of 
powdered  gypsum  and  Prussian  blue.  In  the  black  teas 
the  green  coloring  matter  of  the  leaf  is  destroyed  by  fer- 
mentation ;  in  the  green  teas  it  remains  unchanged. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Chinese  tea  designed  for  export 
is  packed  rather  loosely  in  wooden  chests  lined  with  sheet- 
lead,  the  folds  and  joints  of  which  are  soldered  in  order  to 
make  the  cover  both  air-tight  and  moisture-tight.  A  full 
chest  contains  seventy-five  pounds  of   tea.      The   Japan 

*  The  full-grown  leaf  attains  a  length  of  from  four  to  nine  inches ; 
those  picked  rarely  exceed  one-and-a-half  inches  in  length. 


PLANT   PRODUCTS   OF   ECONOMIC    USE 


133 


product  is  also  packed  in  moisture-tight  wrappers,  the 
original  parcels  being  usually  ten-pound,  five-pound,  and 
pound  packages.  Similar  devices  are  used  in  preparing 
the  India  and  Formosa  teas  for  ocean  shipment. 

The  chief  tea-producing  countries  are  India  (including 
Ceylon)  China,  Japan  (including  Formosa),  and  Java.  A 
successful  tea-garden  is  in  operation  near  Charleston,  S.  C. 
A  small  amount  is  grown  in  the  Fiji  and  Samoan  Islands. 
The  Ceylon  and  Formosa  teas  take  a  very  high  rank. 


AI5EA  OF 

TKA  PRODUCTION. 


INDIA N 
!:0  C  E  A  N 


-Jr    .    V^J 

^^7-  IV 


Great  Britain  and  her  colonies  consume  the  bulk  of  the 
tea-crop.  The  average  yearly  consumption  per  person  is 
eight  pounds  in  Australia,  six  in  Great  Britain  and  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  and  more  than  four  in  Canada.  In  the 
United  States  and  Russia  it  is  less  than  one  pound  pei 
person. 

Before  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  in  1869,  most  of 
the  crop  for  the  English  market  was  despatched  by  way  of 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  So  important  was  it  to  get  the  con- 
signments to  London  without  loss  of  time,  that  fast  clipper 
ships  were  built  especially  for  carrying  tea.    Since  the  open- 


134  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

ing  of  the  canal  the  crop  has  been  shipped  mainly  by  the 
Suez  route. 

A  part  of  the  tea  required  for  the  United  States  reaches 
New  York  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal,  but  the  movement  is 
gradually  changing  since  the  building  of  the  fast  liners 
that  now  ply  between  Asian  and  American  ports.  These 
steamships  carry  it  to  Seattle,  or  to  Vancouver,  whence  it 
is  distributed  by  rail.  The  increased  cost  of  shipment  by 
this  route  is  more  than  offset  by  a  gain  of  from  five  to 
seven  days  in  time. 

In  some  respects  the  Russian  "  caravan  route "  is  the 
most  important  channel  of  the  tea-trade.  The  tea  is  col- 
lected mainly  at  Tientsin,  and  sent  by  camel  caravans 
through  Manchuria  to  the  most  convenient  point  on  the 
Siberian  railway.  Not  only  the  shipments  of  brick  tea  * 
for  the  Russian  market,  but  the  choicest  products  for 
western  Europe  also  are  sent  by  this  route.  It  is  prob- 
ably an  economical  way  of  shipping  the  brick  tea,  but  a 
more  expensive  method  of  shipment  for  the  latter  could 
not  be  found  easily ;  it  is  preferred  from  the  fact  that,  no 
matter  how  carefully  sealed,  the  flavor  of  tea  is  materially 
injured  by  an  ocean  voyage. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  for  the  tea  product  alone  the 
Siberian  railway  will  soon  become  an  important  factor  in 
the  commerce  of  Europe.  Shipments  of  tea  are  also  sent 
from  Canton  to  Odessa,  Russia,  but  this  route  is  not  less 
expensive  in  the  long  run  than  the  Cape  route,  and  the  tea 
suffers  as  much  deterioration  from  the  shorter  as  from  the 
longer  voyage. 

Cacao. — Cacao,  the  "  cocoa  "  of  commerce,  consists  of 
the  prepared  seeds  of  several  species  of  Theobroma,  the 
greater  part  being  obtained  from    the    Theobroma  cacao. 

*  Brick  tea  consists  of  leaves  moulded  into  bricks  under  neavy  pressure. 
Refuse  and  stems  are  also  thus  prepared  for  the  cheaper  grades. 


PLANT  PRODUCTS  OF  ECONOMIC  USE      135 

The  name  is  unfortunately  confused  with  that  of  the  cocoa- 
palm,  but  there  is  no  relation  whatever  between  the  two. 

The  seeds  of  the  cacao  were  used  in  ancient  America 
long  before  its  discovery  by  Columbus,  and  the  latter  car- 
ried the  first  knowledge  of  it  to  Europe.  By  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  much  used  in  Spain, 
and  less  than  a  hundred  years  later  it  had  become  the  fash- 
ionable drink  of  western  Europe. 

The  cacao-tree,  originally  native  to  Mexico,  is  now  culti- 
vated throughout  tropical  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
It  is  not  cultivated  to  any  extent  in  the  Eastern  continent. 
The  fruit  consists  of  large,  fleshy  pods,  which  are  cut 
from  the  trees  usually  in  June  and  December.  The  seeds 
are  then  piled  in  heaps,  or  else  packed  in  pits,  and  al- 
lowed to  undergo  a  rapid  fermentation  for  a  period  of  sev- 
eral days,  to  which  process  their  flavor  is  mainly  due. 
The  roasted  and  broken  seeds  are  the  cocoa-nibs  of  com- 
merce.    The  husks  are  known  as  cocoa-shells. 

A  very  large  part  of  the  cacao  product  comes  from  Ecua- 
dor, Guayaquil  being  perhaps  the  chief  market  of  the 
world.  The  Venezuelan  and  Brazilian  products,  however, 
are  the  choicest ;  these  are  known  in  commerce  respect- 
ively as  Caracas  and  Trinidad  cacao.  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
France  are  the  chief  purchasers,  and  in  the  first-named 
country  the  consumption  per  person  is  five  or  six  times  as 
great  as  in  other  countries. 

Cacao  is  not  only  a  stimulant  beverage,  but  a  food  as 
well ;  about  one -half  its  weight  is  fat,  and  about  one- third 
consists  of  starch  and  flesh-making  substances.  The  stim- 
ulant principle  is  the  same  as  that  occurring  in  tea  and 
coffee,  but  the  proportion  is  considerably  less.  In  prepar- 
ing the  cocoa  for  the  market,  much  of  the  fat  is  intention- 
ally withdrawn.  The  fat,  commercially  known  as  "  cocoa- 
butter,"   and  "  oil  of  theobroma,"  does  not  turn  rancid. 


136  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Chocolate  consists  of  cocoa  ground  to  a  paste  with 
sugar  and  flavoring  matter,  and  then  cast  in  moulds  to 
harden.  It  is  used  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  con- 
fectionery. Most  of  the  chocolate  is  made  in  France, 
Spain,  and  the  United  States.  More  than  forty  million 
pounds  of  cocoa  are  yearly  consumed  in  the  United  States. 

Mate. — Mate,  yerba  mate,  or  Paraguay  tea,  is  the  leaf  of 
a  shrub,  a  species  of  holly,  growing  profusely  in  the  forests 
of  Brazil,  Paraguay,  Argentina,  and  Uruguay.  In  many 
instances,  the  shrub  is  cultivated.  The  leaves  are  prepared 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  tea-leaves  are,  but  instead  of 
being  rolled,  they  are  broken  by  beating. 

The  mate  of  commerce  has  a  stimulant  principle  identi- 
cal with  that  of  tea  and  coffee,  which  is  the  only  reason  for 
its  use.  The  consumption,  about  fifteen  thousand  tons  a 
year,  is  confined  almost  wholly  to  the  countries  named. 

Tobacco. — The  tobacco  of  commerce  is  the  prepared 
and  manufactured  leaf  of  several  species  of  plant,  be- 
longing to  the  nightshade  family.  Most  of  the  product  is 
derived  from  the  species  known  as  Virginia  tobacco  (Nico- 
tiana  tabacum)  and  the  Brazilian  species  {Nicotiana  rus- 
tica).  The  former  is  cultivated  in  the  United  States, 
West  Indies,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  Turkey  ;  the 
latter  has  been  transplanted  to  central  Europe  and  the 
East  Indies. 

The  use  of  tobacco  was  prevalent  in  the  New  World  at 
the  time  of  Columbus's  first  voyage,  and  was  quickly  intro- 
duced into  Europe.  The  prepared  leaf  contains  a  sub- 
stance, nicotine,  which  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  of  poisons 
when  swallowed,  and  an  intense  narcotic  stimulant  when 
inhaled.  On  account  of  the  evil  effects  arising  from  its 
introduction,  its  use  was  forbidden  by  the  Church  and  also 
by  sovereigns  of  several  European  states.  The  latter,  how- 
ever, finding  that  its  use  was  becoming  general,  made  it  a 


PLANT   PRODUCTS   OF   ECONOMIC    USE 


137 


Crown  monopoly.  In  Great  Britain  its  cultivation  was 
forbidden  in  order  to  encourage  its  cultivation  in  Virginia. 

Tobacco  does  not  thrive  best  in  a  poor  soil,  but  the 
latter  produces  a  thin,  half-developed  leaf,  which  in  other 
plants  would  be  called  "  sickly."  It  grows  in  almost  any 
kind  of  soil,  but  requires  warm  summer  nights.  In  many 
instances  the  tobacco  of  temperate  latitudes  yields  a  more 
salable  leaf  when  grown  under  cover.  The  flavor  is  due 
partly  to  soil  and  climate,  and  partly  to  skill  in  curing. 
The  choicest  prod- 
uct is  obtained  in 
only  a  few  localities 
of  limited  area.  It 
sometimes  happens 
that  the  products  of 
two  plantations  al- 
most side  by  side, 
and  similarly  situ- 
ated, are  very  unlike 
in  character  and  qual- 
ity. 

The  choicest  cigar- 
tobacco  is  grown  on 

the  Vuelta  Abajo  district  in  the  province  of  Pinar  del 
Eio,  Cuba;  another  very  choice  Cuban  leaf  is  known  as 
Partidos.  Cuban-made  cigars  of  fine  quality  are  com- 
mercially "  Havana  "  cigars,  although  tobacco  from  Manila 
and  Porto  Rico  is  apt  to  be  largely  used  in  their  manu- 
facture. In  order  to  avoid  the  very  heavy  duty  on  cigars, 
which  is  not  far  from  six  dollars  per  pound,  a  great  deal  of 
the  Havana  tobacco  is  exported  to  points  along  the  Florida 
coast,  mainly  Key  West  and  Tampa.  The  unmanufactured 
tobacco  pays  a  comparatively  small  duty,  and  the  cigars 
made  from  it  are  commercially  known  as  "  Key  West." 


138  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

In  some  parts  of  Mexico  a  fine-flavored  tobacco  is 
grown,  but  as  the  cigars  are  not  uniform  in  quality  they  are 
not  popular.  Some  of  the  Brazilian  tobacco  is  a  high- 
class  product,  but  not  much  is  exported.  Porto  Kican 
leaf  has  a  tine  flavor,  but  is  not  popular  because  of  its  dark 
color.  The  demand  for  it  in  the  United  States  is  growing, 
however.  Of  the  leaf  grown  in  the  East,  that  from  Suma- 
tra and  the  Philippine  Islands  is  by  far  the  best,  and  the 
exports  are  heavy.  Cuban  manufacturers  purchase  the 
Manila  leaf ;  the  Sumatra  wrappers  are  purchased  in  the 
United  States. 

The  choicest  cigarette-tobacco  is  grown  in  Asiatic  Tur- 
key, Transcaucasia,  and  Egypt.  It  is  selected  with  great 
care,  and  is  "  long-cut."  The  common  grades  are  made  of 
chopped  Virginia  tobacco,  or  of  chopped  cigar-trimmings. 
The  cheapest  grades  consist  of  refuse  leaf  mixed  with  half- 
smoked  cigar-stumps.  The  United  States  leads  in  the 
manufacture  of  cigarettes,  and  a  large  part  of  the  product 
is  sold  in  China,  India,  and  Japan.  Most  of  the  world's 
product  of  snuff  is  made  in  the  United  States,  and  nearly 
all  of  it  is  sold  abroad. 

The  United  States  produces  yearly  about  seven  hundred 
million  pounds.  A  large  part  of  this  is  sold  to  European 
countries.  Great  Britain  purchases  about  four-fifths  of  the 
tobacco  there  consumed  from  the  United  States.  The  latter 
country  purchases  from  Europe  (mainly  the  Netherlands) 
about  half  as  much  as  it  sells  to  Europe.  Louisville,  Ky., 
is  probably  the  largest  tobacco-market  in  the  world.  New 
York,  Baltimore,  Richmond,  Manila,  and  Havana  are  the 
chief  shipping-ports. 

In  almost  every  civilized  country  tobacco  is  heavily 
taxed.  In  the  United  States  there  is  not  only  a  heavy  im- 
port duty,  but  an  internal  revenue  in  addition.  In  Aus- 
tria, France,  Italy,  Japan,  and  Spain  the  manufacture  and 


PLANT   PRODUCTS   OF   ECONOMIC   USE  139 

sale  is  in  the  hands  of  the  government.  The  consumption 
of  tobacco  varies  greatly.  In  the  Netherlands  it  averages 
about  seven  pounds  a  year  to  each  individual ;  in  the 
United  States  it  is  more  than  four  pounds ;  in  central 
Europe,  three  pounds ;  in  Spain,  Sweden,  Great  Britain, 
and  Italy,  it  is  less  than  two  pounds. 

Opium. — The  opium  of  commerce  is  the  hardened  juice 
obtained  from  the  seed  capsules  of  several  species  of  the 
poppy-plant.  A  variety  having  a  large  capsule  (Papaver 
somniferum)  is  most  commonly  cultivated  for  the  commer- 
cial production  of  the  substance.  Half-a-dozen  times  dur- 
ing the  season  the  capsules  are  scratched  or  cut ;  the  juice 
exuding  when  hard  is  picked  or  scraped  off  and  pressed 
into  cakes. 

Opium  is  not  only  a  narcotic  poison,  but  it  has  the  prop- 
erty of  lessening  the  pain  of  disease,  and  this  is  its  chief 
use  in  medicine.  In  Mohammedan  countries  where  the 
use  of  alcoholic  liquors  is  forbidden  as  a  religious  custom, 
opium  is  used  as  a  substitute.  In  Turkey,  Persia,  Arabia, 
and  Egypt  the  production  of  opium  is  an  important  indus- 
try connected  with  social  and  religious  life.  In  British 
India  it  is  a  political  factor,  being  extensively  cultivated  as 
a  government  monopoly  to  be  sold  to  the  Chinese,  who  are 
probably  the  chief  consumers  of  it.  The  Indian  Govern- 
ment derives  a  revenue  sometimes  reaching  twenty  million 
dollars  from  this  source. 

The  best  quality  of  opium  is  marketed  at  Smyrna,  and 
most  of  this  is  purchased  by  the  United  States.  A  con- 
siderable amount  of  Chinese  opium  is  imported  for  the  use 
of  the  Chinese,  and  a  larger  amount  is  probably  smuggled 
over  the  Canadian  and  Mexican  borders.  Laudanum  is  an 
alcoholic  tincture,  and  morphine  an  extractive  of  opium; 
both  are  used  as  medicine. 


140  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


QUESTIONS   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Consult  a  good  physiology  and  learn  the  effects  of  coffee,  tea, 
tobacco,  and  opium. 

Where  and  what  are  the  following  :  Mocha,  Java,  Maracaibo, 
Yokohama,  Amoy,  Canton,  Oaxaca,  Hodeida,  Rio  Janeiro,  San- 
tos, Havana ;  how  is  each  connected  commercially  with  this 
chapter  ? 

From  the  map,  Fig.  1,  trace  the  route  of  a  cargo  of  tea  over- 
land from  China  to  Great  Britain. 

Consult  an  English  history  or  a  cyclopaedia  and  learn  about 
the  opium  war. 

FOR  STUDY  AND   REFERENCE 

Obtain  samples  of  the  following,  preserving  them  for  studv 
and  inspection  in  closely  stoppered  vials  :  Mocha,  Java,  Rio,  and 
Sumatra  coffees ;  green,  black,  and  gunpowder  tea.  Soak  a  tea- 
leaf  a  few  minutes  in  warm  water  ;  unroll  the  leaf  and  attach  it 
to  a  white  card,  for  study. 

Obtain  samples  of  gum  opium,  laudanum,  and  morphine  ;  note 
the  odor  of  the  first  two  and  the  taste  of  the  last.  Remember 
that  they  are  poisonous. 

Unroll  a  cheap  cigarette  and  note  the  character  of  the  tobacco 
in  it,  using  a  magnifying  glass. 


CHAPTER  XI 
GUMS  AND   RESINS  USED   IN   THE   ARTS 

Most  vegetable  juices  exposed  to  the  air  harden  into 
firm  substances,  commonly  called  gum.  Some  of  these 
dissolve,  or  at  least  soften,  in  water ;  these  technically  are 
known  as  "gums,"  and  usually  are  so  designated  in  com- 
merce. Others  are  insoluble  in  water,  but  dissolve  readily 
in  alcohol,  in  naphtha,  in  turpentine,  or  in  other  essential 
oils;  these  are  designated  as  "gum-resins."  Still  others 
yield  oils  or  pitchy  substances  on  distillation ;  these  are 
known  as  "  oleo-resins."  There  are  many  other  dried  vege- 
table juices,  however,  that  in  commerce  are  not  classified 
among  the  gums  and  resins,  and  of  these  the  most  impor- 
tant is  the  substance  commonly  known  as  india-rubber. 

Rubber  and  Rubber  Products.  —  "  Caoutchouc  "  is 
approximately  the  name  given  by  Indians  of  the  Amazon 
forests  to  a  substance  that  had  also  been  found  in  India. 
Some  of  it  was  brought  to  Europe  from  the  Amazon  region 
as  early  as  1736,  and  for  nearly  one  hundred  years  no  gen- 
eral purpose  was  discovered  for  which  it  could  be  used, 
except  to  erase  lead-pencil  marks — hence  the  name  india- 
rubber,  which  has  held  ever  since. 

Common  rubber  is  the  prepared  juice  of  a  dozen  or 
more  shrubs  and  trees,  all  of  which  grow  in  tropical  re- 
gions.* The  belt  of  rubber-producing  plants  extends  around 

*  The  following  are  the  chief  rubber-producing  trees  :  Siphonia  elastica, 
or  Hevea  brasiliensis,  Amazon  forests,  yields  Para  rubber ;  Manihot  Glaz- 
iovii,  also  a  tapioca-producing  shrub,  Ceara  province,  Brazil,  furnishes 
Ceara  rubber;  Castilloa  elastica,  Central  American  States,  Nicaragua 
rubber ;  Ficus  elastica,  British  India,  and  Urceola  elastica,  Borneo,  Indian 
rubber.  There  are  rubber-producing  trees  in  Florida,  but  they  have  little 
commercial  value  at  the  present  time.  African  rubber  is  taken  from  a 
variety  of  plants. 

141 


142  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

the  world  and  includes  such  well-known  species  as  the  fig, 
the  manihot  (or  manioc),  and  the  oleander;  indeed,  it  is  a 
condition  of  sap  rather  than  a  definite  species  of  plant  that 
produces  rubber,  and  the  latter  is  a  manufactured  rather 
than  a  natural  product.  The  process  of  preparing  the  juice 
is  practically  the  same  in  every  part  of  the  world. 

The  rubber-gatherer  of  the  Amazon,  who  is  practically  a 
slave,  wades  into  the  swamp,  makes  several  incisions  in  the 
bark  of  the  tree,  fashions  a  rough  trough  of  clay  under  it, 
and  waits  till  the  sap  fills  the  clay  vessel.  When  the  sap 
has  been  gathered  he  makes  a  fire  of  the  nuts  of  the  uru- 
curi  palm  and  places  an  inverted  funnel  over  it  to  concen- 
trate the  smoke.  He  first  dips  the  end  of  a  wooden  spindle 
into  the  juice  and  then  holds  it  in  the  smoke  until  the 
juice  coagulates ;  this  process  is  repeated  until  there  has 
formed  a  ball  of  rubber  weighing  from  five  to  ten  pounds. 
The  smoke  of  the  palm-nuts  is  a  chemical  agent  that  con- 
verts the  juice  into  the  crude  rubber  of  commerce. 

Crude  gum,  however,  is  lacking  both  in  strength  and 
elasticity.  The  process  that  makes  it  a  finished  product  is 
known  as  vulcanization.  The  crude  rubber,  having  been  ex- 
ported to  the  manufacturer  in  the  United  States  or  Europe, 
is  shredded,  washed,  and  cleansed,  and  partly  fused  with 
varying  proportions  of  sulphur.  For  a  very  soft  product, 
such  as  the  inner  surface  of  tires,  only  a  small  proportion 
is  used ;  where  the  wear  is  considerable,  a  larger  proportion 
is  employed.*  White  clay  is  sometimes  added  to  give  body 
to  the  product ;  coloring  matter  is  also  sometimes  added. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  crude  rubber  comes  from 

*  The  process  of  vulcanizing  was  made  practicable  during  the  ten  years 
ending  in  1850.  It  was  invented  and  perfected  by  Goodyear  in  the  United 
States  and  by  Hancock  in  England ;  for  ordinary  purposes,  where  both 
strength  and  elasticity  are  required,  about  five  per  cent,  of  sulphur  is 
added.  The  addition  of  about  fifty  per  cent,  changes  the  rubber  to  a 
hard  black  substance  known  as  "ebonite,"  or  "hard  rubber." 


GUMS   AND   RESINS   USED   IN   THE   ARTS 


143 


the  Amazon  forests.  Brazil  produces  about  one-half,  but 
a  considerable  quantity  is  obtained  in  Acre,  the  territory 
formed  where  the  borders  of  Brazil,  Bolivia,  and  Peru 
meet,  and  now  ceded  to  Brazil.  Nearly  all  this  product, 
that  of  the  Ceara  region  excepted,  is  marketed  at  Para 
and  is  known  as  Para  rubber.  It  is  the  best  produced. 
The  African  product,  mainly  from  the  forests  of  the  Kon- 
go, and  Madagascar,  and  nearly  all  the  East  Indian  prod- 
uct is  sent  to  Europe. 

The  world's  product  is  about  one  hundred  and  thirty- 


three  million  pounds  of  crude  rubber.  Of  this  product  the 
United  States  takes  nearly  one-half.  The  greater  part  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  pneumatic  tires,  hose,  and 
overshoes.  A  large  part  is  used  for  making  water-proof 
cloth,*  and  considerable  is  made  into  the  small  elastic 
bands  for  which  there  is  a  growing  use. 

*  In  1823  a  Scotchman,  Mackintosh,  applied  the  discovery,  that  rubber 
gum  was  soluble  in  benzine,  to  the  water-proofing  of  the  cloth  that  bears 
his  name.  This  invention  was  about  the  first  extensive  commercial  use  to 
which  rubber  had  been  put. 


144  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Gutta-Percha.  —  Gutta-percha  is  obtained  from  the 
juices  of  several  plants  (chiefly  Dichopsis  gutta  and  Sa- 
pota  mulleri)  both  of  which  abound  in  the  Malay  penin- 
sula and  the  East  Indies.  It  is  prepared  in  a  manner  some- 
what similar  to  that  employed  in  making  crude  rubber  ;  it 
is  also  easily  vulcanized  by  heating  with  sulphur.  It  is 
used  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  golf-balls, 
but  mainly  as  the  insulating  cover  of  copper  wires  used 
in  ocean  telegraph  cables.  For  this  purpose  it  has  no 
known  substitute,  and  its  essential  merit  is  the  fact  that  it 
is  not  altered  by  salt  water.  Nearly  all  the  product  is 
shipped  from  Singapore  to  England. 

Pine-Tree  Products. — The  various  members  of  the 
pine  and  cone-bearing  trees  yield  valuable  essential  oils 
and  'oleo-resins  that  are  very  important  in  the  arts  and 
sciences.  These,  in  nearly  every  instance,  are  prepared 
from  the  sap  of  the  tree. 

Oil  of  turpentine  is  known  as  an  "essential  oil,"  and  in 
chemical  structure  and  properties  it  does  not  differ  from 
the  various  essential  oils,  such  as  lemon,  orange,  pepper- 
mint, etc.  Commercial  turpentine  is  generally  made  from 
the  sap  of  the  long-leafed  pine  of  the  Atlantic  coast-plain. 

The  bark  of  the  tree  is  cut  near  the  foot,  and  the  sap 
that  oozes  from  the  scar  quickly  hardens  into  a  gum. 
The  gum,  generally  known  as  "  crude  turpentine,"  is  dis- 
tilled and  yields  about  one -fourth  its  weight  of  oil  or 
"  spirit "  of  turpentine.  It  is  a  staple  article  of  manufact- 
ure in  Europe,  India,  and  the  United  States,  and  is  used 
chiefly  to  dilute  the  oil  paints  and  varnishes  used  in  in- 
door work.  The  United  States  supplies  about  two-thirds 
of  the  world's  product,  a  large  part  of  which  is  shipped 
from  Savannah  and  Brunswick,  Ga.,  to  Great  Britain.* 

*  From  the  fact  that  most  of  the  dwellings  in  the  United  States  are  built 
of  wood,  the  United  States  is  a  very  heavy  consumer  of  turpentine. 


GUMS  AND  RESINS  USED  IN  THE  ARTS  145 

Resin  is  the  substance  remaining  after  the  crude  turpen- 
tine has  been  distilled.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
varnish,  sealing-wax,  and  soap.  Finely  powdered  resin  is 
also  mixed  with  wood-pulp  in  the  manufacture  of  wrapping- 
paper.  It  gives  the  latter  a  glazed  surface  and  renders  it 
almost  water-proof.  Most  of  the  world's  product  of  resin 
comes  from  the  turpentine  district  of  the  United  States, 
and  about  four-fifths  of  it  is  exported  to  Europe. 

When  resin  is  subjected  to  distillation  at  a  still  higher 
temperature,  resin  oil,  a  very  heavy  turpentine,  is  given 
off,  and  a  viscous  substance  known  as  pitch  remains.  A 
considerable  amount  of  this  is  still  made  in  the  United 
States,  but  the  greater  part  comes  from  the  pine-forests 
of  Russia  and  Scandinavia.  When  pine-wood  is  distilled, 
tar  is  the  chief  product.  In  Russia  tar  is  generally 
made  by  burning  green  logs  covered  with  turf,  over  a  pit. 
Creosote,  or  wood  preservative,  is  made  from  tar.  The 
various  pine-tree  products,  creosote  excepted,  are  com- 
monly known  as  "naval  stores,"  the  tar  being  used 
in  water-proofing  the  rigging  of  vessels,  the  pitch  in 
calking  the  seams  in  between  planks,  in  the  decks  and 
hulls. 

Other  Resins  and  Gums  Used  in  the  Arts. — Most  of 
the  gums  and  resins  used  in  the  arts  and  sciences  are  the 
hardened  sap  of  plants — in  some  cases  exuding  by  natural 
means  from  the  bark,  in  others  resulting  from  the  puncture 
of  the  bark. 

The  lac  of  commerce  is  due  to  the  puncture  of  the  young 
branches  of  a  tree,  frequently  a  fig  {Ficus  religiosa)  growing 
in  the  tropical  forests  of  India.  The  hardened  sap  in- 
crusts  twigs  forming  stick-lac;  when  crushed,  washed, 
and  freed  from  the  woody  matter  it  is  seed-lac;  when 
melted  and  cooled  in  flakes  it  is  shell-lac,  the  form  best 
known  in  commerce.     It  is  the  chief  ingredient  in  sealing- 


146  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

wax,  and  is  extensively  used  as  a  varnish.     It  is  also  used 
in  fireworks  on  account  of  its  inflammability. 

Dammar  is  the  product  of  a  tree  growing  in  the  East 
Indies ;  it  is  the  basis  of  a  very  fine  white  varnish.  Copal 
is  a  term  applied  to  oleo-resins  soluble  in  turpentine,  and 
used  almost  universally  as  varnishes.  They  come  from  the 
tropical  regions  of  South  America,  Africa,  and  from  the 
East  Indies.  Kauri  is  the  fossil  gum  of  a  cone-bearing 
tree  dug  from  the  ground  in  northern  New  Zealand.  Amber 
is  the  fossil  gum  of  extinct  cone-bearing  trees  found  mainly 
along  the  Baltic  coast  of  Prussia.  It  is  used  chiefly  for 
the  mouth-pieces  of  tobacco-pipes  and  cigar-holders ;  the 
inferior  product  is  made  into  varnish.  It  is  sold  wherever 
tobacco  is  used.  Sandarach,  found  on  the  north  African 
coast,  is  used  principally  in  Europe,  being  employed  as  a 
varnish.  The  United  States  and  Great  Britain  consume 
most  of  the  foregoing  products. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   DISCUSSION 

Name  any  elastic  substance  you  know  about  that  is  in  every 
way  a  substitute  for  rubber. 

What  has  been  the  relation  between  rubber  and  good  roads  ? 

Describe  the  structure  of  a  bicycle  tire. 

Why  are  tar,  pitch,  and  turpentine  called  naval  stores? — and 
what  determines  the  locality  in  which  they  are  made  ? 

What  is  varnish,  and  for  what  purposes  is  it  used  ? 

FOR    STUDY    AND    REFERENCE 

Obtain  specimens  of  crude  rubber,  vulcanized  rubber,  and  hard 
rubber  ;  note  carefully  the  characteristics  of  each. 

Burn  a  very  small  piece  of  cheap  white  rubber-tubing  in  an 
iron  spoon  or  a  fire-shovel ;  note  the  character  of  the  residue. 

Obtain  specimens  of  gutta-percha,  resin,  pitch,  turpentine, 
shellac,  copal,  dammar,  and  creosote  for  study  and  inspection. 


CHAPTER    XII 
COAL    AND    PETROLEUM 

The  economic  history  of  nearly  every  country  that  has 
achieved  eminence  in  modern  times  dates  from  its  use  of 
coal  and  iron  ;  and  indeed  the  presence  of  these  substances 
in  workable  deposits  means  almost  unlimited  power.  The 
present  era  is  sometimes  called  the  Age  of  Steel,  but  the 
possibilities  of  producing  steel  in  enormous  quantities,  at 
less  than  one-fifth  its  price  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  depended  wholly  upon  the  use  of  mineral 
coal  instead  of  charcoal  in  its  manufacture. 

Coal  consists  of  accumulations  of  vegetable  matter  that 
were  formed  in  prior  geological  ages.  Under  the  action 
of  heat  and  moisture,  and  also  the  tremendous  pressure  of 
the  rock  layers  that  afterward  covered  them,  the  vegetable 
matter  was  converted  to  mineral  coal. 

The  aggregate  coal-fields  of  the  United  States  are  not 
far  from  two  hundred  thousand  square  miles  in  extent,  but 
of  this  area  not  much  more  than  one-half  is  workable.  In 
Europe  there  are  estimated  to  be  about  one  hundred  thou- 
sand square  miles  of  coal-lands,  of  which  about  half  are 
productive  at  the  present  time.  Of  this  Great  Britain  has 
12,000  square  miles,  Spain  4,000,  France  2,000,  Germany 
1,800,  and  Belgium  500.  In  Canada  there  are  about  20,000 
square  miles  of  coal-land ;  a  part  of  this  is  included  in  the 
Nanaimo  field  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but  the  most  important 
are  the  Nova  Scotia  beds,  which  form  about  the  only  sup- 
ply for  the  British  naval  stations  of  America.  China  has 
extensive  coal-fields. 

147 


148  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

In  character  coal  is  broadly  divided  into  two  classes — an- 
thracite or  hard,  and  bituminous  or  soft,  coal.  Anthracite 
coal  occurs  in  folded  and  metamorphic  rocks.  It  is  hard 
and  glassy,  and  does  not  split  into  thin  layers  or  leaves. 
The  beds  have  been  subjected  to  intense  heat  and  pressure, 
and  the  coal  has  but  a  very  small  amount — rarely  more 
than  five  per  cent. — of  volatile  matter  ;  it  burus,  therefore, 
with  little  or  no  smoke  and  soot,  and  on  this  account  is  very 
desirable  as  a  fuel  in  cities.  Two  areas  in  Colorado  and 
New  Mexico  produce  small  quantities  of  pure  anthracite ; 
practically  all  the  commercial  anthracite  comes  from  three 
small  basins  in  Pennsylvania.  In  quality  it  is  known  as 
"red  ash"  and  "white  ash,"  the  former  being  the  superior. 

The  yearly  output  of  the  anthracite  mines  is  upward  of 
fifty-five  million  long  tons  a  year,  or  somewhat  less  than  five 
million  tons  per  month.  In  winter  the  rate  of  consump- 
tion is  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  production.  A  short- 
age in  the  summer  production  is  therefore  apt  to  be  keenly 
felt  in  the  winter.  Before  shipment  to  the  market  the  coal 
is  crushed  at  the  breakers,  sorted  in  different  sizes,  and 
washed. 

Most  of  the  anthracite  coal-mines  are  owned  by  the  rail- 
way companies  centring  at  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  or 
else  are  operated  by  companies  controlled  by  the  railways. 
About  one-fourth  of  the  output  is  produced  by  indepen- 
dent operators  who,  as  a  rule,  sell  their  coal  to  the  railway 
companies.  The  Reading,  Pennsylvania,  Central  of  New 
Jersey,  Lackawanna,  Lehigh  Yalley,  Ontario  &  "Western, 
Erie,  and  Delaware  &  Hudson  are  popularly  known  as 
"  coalers  "  because  the  larger  part  of  their  eastern  business 
consists  in  carrying  anthracite  coal. 

Formerly  much  of  the  coal  was  shipped  by  canals,  but 
the  latter  were  not  able  to  compete  with  the  railways,  and 
most  of  the  coal-canals  have  been  abandoned.     The  price 


150 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


of  anthracite  at  tide-water  (New  York)  varies  from  $3.20 
to  $450  per  long  ton.  At  Philadelphia  the  price  is  about 
one-fourth  less.  Buffalo  is  the  chief  lake-port  for  anthra- 
cite. Steam  sizes  are  about  two-thirds  the  price  of  house 
fuel. 

Bituminous,  or  soft,  coal  furnishes  the  larger  part  of  the 
house  fuel  in  the  United  States,  and  nearly  all  the  house 
coal  used  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  It  contains  from 
fifteen  to  more  than  forty  per  cent,  of  volatile  matter,  burn- 


COAL  TIELDS 

IN 
UNITED  STATES. 

„    8CALE   OF   MILES, 


ing  with  a  long  and  smoky  flame.  The  coal  which  con- 
tains twenty  per  cent,  or  less  of  volatile  matter  is  a  free- 
burning  coal  that  may  develop  heat  enough  to  partly  fuse 
the  ash,  forming  "  clinkers  " ;  it  is  therefore  called  "  caking  " 
coal,  and  is  not  only  well  adapted  for  use  as  fuel  and  steam- 
making,  but  it  is  also  a  good  smelting  coal. 

Coal  which  contains  more  than  thirty  per  cent,  of  vola- 
tile matter  is  known  as  "  fat  "  coal  and  is  generally  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  coke  and  illuminating  gas.  Western 
Pennsylvania  produces  the  largest  amount  of  fat  coal,  but 


COAL  AND   PETROLEUM 


151 


it  is  found  hero  and  there  in  nearly  all  soft-coal  regions.  A 
so-called  smokeless  bituminous  coal  occurs  in  various  local- 
ities ;  its  low  percentage  of  volatile  matter  makes  it  an  ex- 
cellent house  fuel. 

Bituminous  coal  is  mined  in  twenty-five  States  of  the 
Union,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  West  Virginia,  and  Ohio 
heading  the  list.  In  about  half  the  mines  the  coal  is  cut  from 
the  seam  by  means  of  machinery  and  is  known  as  machine- 
mined  coal.  A  very  large  part  of  the  product  is  consumed 
within  a  short  distance  of  the  mines,  and  this  is  especially 
true  of  the  region  about  the  upper  Ohio  Eiver. 

Most  of   the  product  is  shipped   to  the  large  manu- 


tTnite<IStates 

United  Kingdom 

Germany 

Austria-Hungarj 

Erance 

Belgium 

Russia 

Oilier  Countries 


COAL 

Production  in  1899 

in  Million  Metric  Tons. 

1  Metric  Ton  =  2204.6  lbs. 


facturing  cities  of  the  middle  west,  where  it  is  used  for 
steam  as  well  as  fuel ;  a  very  large  amount  also  is  sent 
down  the  Ohio  in  barges  to  the  lower  Mississippi  River. 
The  spot  value  of  bituminous  coal  varies  from  $0.80  to  $1.60 
per  ton ;  the  product  of  the  Pacific  coast  mines,  however, 
is  from  $3  to  $5. 

The  output  of  the  mines  of  the  United  States  aggregates 
about  two  hundred  and  forty  million  long  tons  yearly,  and 
this  is  about  one- third  of  the  Avorld's  product.  For  many 
years  there  has  been  an  export  trade  to  Canada,  the  West 
Indies,  Central  and  South  America,  amounting  in  1900  to 
8,000,000  tons.  Within  a  few  years,  however,  the  de- 
creased cost  of  mining  due  to  machinery,  and  the  low  rates 


152  COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 

of  transportation  to  the  seaboard  has  developed  an  export 

trade  to  Russia,  Germany,  and  France. 

A  small  amount  of  coal  is  imported  into  the   United 

States.     A  superior  quality  of  Australian  coal  finds  a  ready 

market  in  Pacific  coast  points  as  far  north  as  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  large  quantities  of 
Nanaimo,  B.  C,  coal  are  sold 
in    Oregon,  Washington,   and 


Rest  of  the  World 


coal  California.     A  small  quantity 

of  the  "  slack  "  or  waste  of  the  Nova  Scotia  mines  is  im- 
ported to  Boston  to  be  made  into  coke.  The  Canadian  fields 
supply  a  considerable  part  of  the  coal  used  in  Montana. 

Coke  and  Coal-Tar  Products. — In  the  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel  a  fuel  having  a  high  percentage  of  carbon 
free  from  volatile  matter  is  essential.  The  great  cost  of 
wood  charcoal  forbids  its  use,  and  so  a  charcoal  made  from 
soft  coal  is  used.  Fat  coal  is  heated  in  closed  chambers  un- 
til the  volatile  matter  is  driven  off.  The  product  is  "  coke  "; 
the  closed  chamber  is  an  "  oven."  The  ovens  are  built  of 
stone  or  fire-brick,  in  a  long  row.  They  are  usually  on  an 
abrupt  slope,  so  that  the  coal  can  be  dumped  into  the  top, 
while  the  coke  can  be  withdrawn  from  the  bottom,  to  be 
loaded  into  cars. 

About  three  thousand  one  hundred  and  forty  pounds 
of  coal  are  required  to  make  a  short  ton  of  coke;  from 
three  thousand  to  five  thousand  cubic  feet  of  illuminating 
gas,  together  with  varying  amounts  of  coal-tar  and  am- 
monia, are  driven  off  and  generally  wasted.  In  a  few  in- 
stances "  scientific "  ovens  are  in  use  for  the  purpose  of 
saving  these  products  ;  but  in  the  coal-mining  regions  such 
devices  are  the  exception  and  not  the  rule.  The  great 
waste  of  energy-products  in  the  manufacture  of  coke  is 
partly  offset  by  the  employment  of  refuse  and  slack,  which 
could  not  be  otherwise  used. 


COAL  AND  PETROLEUM  153 

There  are  more  than  five  hundred  and  eighteen  thousand 
coke-ovens  in  the  United  States,  of  which  eighty  per  cent, 
are  in  use.  Most  of  them  are  in  the  region  about  the  upper 
Ohio  Eiver,  and  nearly  half  the  total  number  is  in  the 
vicinity  of  Connellsville.  The  region  around  Birmingham, 
Ala.,  ranks  next  in  number.  The  coke  product  of  the  United 
States  is  more  than  twenty  million  short  tons  a  year.  This 
is  considerably  less  than  the  product  of  Great  Britain, 
which  is  upward  of  twenty-five  million  tons. 

Most  of  the  "  scientific "  ovens  are  near  or  in  large 
cities  where  the  gas,  after  purification,  is  used  for  illumi- 
nating purposes.  In  some  instances  the  coke,  and  not  the 
gas,  is  a  by-product.  The  coal-tar  is  used  in  part  for  fuel, 
but  a  portion  of  it  goes  to  the  chemical  laboratory,  where 
it  is  made  to  yield  ammonia,  benzine,  carbolic  acid,  and 
aniline  dyes  to  the  value  of  nearly  seven  million  dollars. 

Graphite. — Graphite,  plumbago,  or  "  black  lead,"  as  it  is 
popularly  named,  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States,  but  only  a  few  localities  produce  a  good  commercial 
article ;  these  are  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y.,  which  yields  from 
six  hundred  to  two  thousand  tons  a  year,  and  Chester 
County,  Pa.,  which  yields  a  small  but  increasing  amount ; 
a  good  quality  is  mined  near  Ottawa,  Canada.  It  is  exten- 
sively mined  in  Ceylon,  and  this  island  produces  the  chief 
bulk  of  the  world's  ordinary  product.  The  finest  grade 
comes  from  the  Alibert  mine  in  Siberia.  A  good  article 
is  manufactured  artificially  at  Niagara  Falls. 

Graphite  is  used  as  a  stove  polish  and  for  crucibles  ;  in 
the  main,  however,  it  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
lead  *  pencils ;   for  this  purpose  only  a  very  soft  mineral, 

*  A  slender  strip  of  metallic  lead  was  used  instead  of  graphite  in  the 
first  pencils  made.  The  use  of  graphite  did  not  become  general  until 
about  1850.  The  hardness  of  a  pencil  is  regulated  by  mixing  clay  with  the 
powdered  graphite. 


154  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

absolutely  free  from  grit,  is  employed,  and  the  Siberian 
output  is  used  almost  wholly.  One  German  firm  and  two 
American  firms  supply  most  of  the  pencils  used. 

Petroleum. — Petroleum  is  the  name  given  to  a  natural 
liquid  mineral  from  which  the  well-known  illuminating  oil 
"  kerosene  "  is  derived,  and  to  obtain  which  it  is  mined. 
Petroleum  is  a  mixture  of  various  compounds  known  as 
hydrocarbons.  Some  of  these  compounds  are  gaseous, 
some  are  liquid,  and  some  are  solid;  all  of  them  are 
articles  of  commercial  value.  The  petroleum  from  dif- 
ferent localities  differs  greatly  in  appearance  and  com- 
position. 

The  pitch  that  coated  Noah's  ark,  the  slime  of  the  build- 
ers of  the  Tower  of  Babel,  and  the  slime-pits  of  the  Yale 
of  Siddim  all  refer  to  mineral  products  associated  with 
petroleum.  Under  the  name  of  "naphtha"  it  has  been 
known  in  Persia  for  thirty  centuries,  and  for  more  than 
half  as  long  a  flowing  oil  spring  has  existed  in  the 
Ionian  Islands.  The  Seneca  Indians  knew  of  a  petroleum 
spring  near  the  village  of  Cuba,  N.  Y.,  and  used  it  as  a 
medicine  long  before  the  advent  of  the  white  man. 

As  early  as  1850  illuminating  oil,  known  as  "  coal "  oil, 
was  made  in  the  United  States  by  distilling  cannel  coal, 
but  this  product  was  supplanted  within  a  few  years  by 
the  natural  petroleum  discovered  in  Pennsylvania.  In 
1859  Colonel  Drake  completed  a  well  bored  in  solid  rock 
near  Titusville,  Pa.  The  venture  proved  successful,  and 
in  a  few  years  petroleum  mining  became  one  of  the  great 
industries  of  the  United  States. 

Petroleum  is  known  to  exist  in  a  great  many  parts  of  the 
world;  the  United  States  and  Eussia,  however,  produce 
practically  all  the  commercial  product ;  a  very  small  amount 
is  obtained  from  a  horizon  on  the  south  slope  of  the  Car- 
pathian  Mountains,    situated  in  Rumania    and  Galicia, 


COAL  AND  PETROLEUM 


155 


Austria-Hungary.    There  are  also  a  few  producing  wells  in 
Peru,  Germany,  Italy,  Burma,  Argentina,  and  Sumatra. 

In  the  United  States  the  largest  horizon  is  that  of  the 
Appalachian  region.  Since  1859  it  has  produced  more 
than  forty  million  gallons  of  crude  oil.  The  Lima,  Ind., 
horizon  produces  about  twenty  million  barrels.  The 
California  and  Texas  horizons  have  become  very  impor- 
tant factors.  The  crude  petroleum  is  transported  partly 
in  tank  cars,  but  mainly  by  means  of  long  lines  of  pipe, 


PETROLEUM  FIELDS 

IX  THE 

UNITED  STATES. 
•  Pipe  Li  lie  Terminate'., 


flowing  from  one  pumping  station  to  another  by  gravity. 
There  are  pipe-line  terminals  on  the  Great  Lakes  and  at 
Pittsburg,  but  the  principal  are  at  the  refining  and  export- 
ing stations  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  on  the  Dela- 
ware River. 

A  considerable  amount  is  exported  to  European  coun- 
tries to  be  there  refined,  but  in  the  main  the  crude  oil 
is  refined  before  exporting  it.  Some  of  the  refined  oil  is 
exported  in  barrels,  and  some  in  tin  cases  ;  the  greater  part, 
however,  goes  in  tank  steamers,  and  from  these  it  is  pumped 


156  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

into  tank  cars  to  be  distributed.  Most  of  the  product  is 
controlled  by  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  and  it  reaches 
nearly  every  country  in  the  world.  It  is  carried  into  Arctic 
regions  on  sledges,  and  over  the  African  deserts  by  caravans. 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the  Netherlands  are  the  chief 
purchasers  and  distributors.  The  value  of  the  entire  prod- 
uct is  about  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  million  dollars. 

The  Russian  oil-producing  region  is  on  and  near  the 
Apsheron  peninsula,  a  small  area  of  Trans-Caucasia,  that 
extends  into  the  Caspian  Sea ;  the  region  is  commonly 
known  as  the  Baku  field,  and  in  1900  the  production  of 
crude  oil  surpassed  that  of  the  United  States.  The  petro- 
leum is  conveyed  by  pipe  lines  to  the  refineries  at  Baku. 
From  this  port  it  is  shipped  in  tank  cars  by  rail  to  Batum, 
whence  it  is  conveyed  to  the  various  European  markets.  A 
considerable  part  of  the  product  is  sent  by  tank  steamers 
to  Astrakhan,  and  thence  up  the  Volga  to  Russian  markets. 
Great  Britain  takes  about  one-third ;  about  the  same  amount 
is  shipped  to  Port  Said  for  China,  India,  and  other  Asian 
markets ;  the  rest  is  consumed  in  central  Europe. 

Petroleum  Products. — The  various  constituents  of 
crude  petroleum  differ  greatly  in  character,  some  being 
much  more  volatile  than  others.  They  are  separated  by 
distillation  at  different  temperatures.  By  this  process 
naphtha,  rhigoline,  gasoline,  benzine,  and  other  highly  in- 
flammable products  are  obtained  in  separate  receivers.  By 
a  similar  process  the  illuminating  or  refined  oil  and  the 
lubricating  oils  are  also  separated.  The  residuum  consists 
of  a  gummy  mass  from  which  parafline  and  petroleum  jelly 
are  extracted. 

Naphtha  usually  contains  several  volatile  compounds,  in- 
cluding benzine  and  gasoline.  It  is  used  as  a  solvent  of 
grease  and  also  of  crude  india-rubber,  but  chiefly  the  man- 
ufacture of  illuminating  gas. 


COAL  AND   PETROLEUM  157 

Kerosene  is  the  name  commonly  given  to  the  refined  oil. 
A  good  quality  should  have  a  fire  test  of  not  less  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  degrees;  that  is,  when  heated  to  that 
temperature,  it  should  not  give  off  any  inflammable  gas. 
This  test  is  now  mandatory  in  most  States. 

Lubricating  oil  is  used  almost  wholly  for  the  lubrication 
of  heavy  machinery.  It  varies  greatly  in  composition  and 
quality. 

Paraffine  or  petroleum  wax  has  largely  superseded  bees- 
wax ;  it  is  used  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  candles  and 
as  an  insulator  for  electric  wires.  A  native  mineral  paraf- 
fine, known  as  ozocerite,  is  mined  in  Utah  and  Galicia ;  it 
is  used  as  an  insulating  material. 

"Vaseline"  " cosmoline"  or  petroleum  "jelly"  is  very 
largely  used  in  pharmacy  as  the  basis  of  ointments  and 
also  as  a  lubricant  for  heavy  machinery.i 

Asphalt  is  produced  by  the  distillation  of  petroleum,  but 
the  greater  part  of  the  world's  product  comes  from  two 
"  pitch  lakes  " — one  in  Bermudez,  Venezuela,  the  other  in 
the  island  of  Trinidad,  off  the  Venezuelan  coast.  The  for- 
mer is  the  larger  and  produces  a  superior  quality.  Small 
deposits  occur  near  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  and  in  Utah.  The 
output  of  the  Venezuelan  asphalt  is  used  almost  wholly 
for  street  pavement. 

Probably  no  other  mineral  has  had  a  wider  influence 
on  both  social  and  economic  life,  and  the  industrial  arts, 
than  petroleum  and  its  compounds.  The  kerosene  lamp, 
the  aniline  dye,  the  insulation  of  electric  wires,  the  lubri- 
cation of  machinery,  the  cosmetic,  the  iudia-rubber  solu- 
tion, and  the  physician's  sedative  dose  represent  only  a 
few  of  the  devices  that  are  derived  from  petroleum. 

Natural  Gas. — A  natural  inflammable  gas  occurs  in  or 
near  several  of  the  petroleum  horizons.  One  important 
belt  extends  through  western  Pennsylvania  and  New  York, 


158  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

and  another  through  northwestern  Ohio  and  northeastern 
Indiana.  It  is  conveyed  through  pipe-lines  and  used  both 
as  fuel  and  for  lighting.  Natural  gas  occurs  in  a  great 
many  localities,  but  is  used  commercially  only  in  the  re- 
gions noted.  It  is  better  adapted  for  making  glass  than 
any  other  fuel,  and  on  this  account  extensive  glass-making 
establishments  have  concentrated  in  the  natural-gas  belt  of 
western  Pennsylvania. 

QUESTIONS    FOR    DISCUSSION 

The  statement  is  sometimes  made  to  the  effect  that  coal  is 
■ '  condensed  sunlight "  ;  is  it  true,  or  untrue ;  and  why  ? 

Why  are  the  coal  areas  of  Europe  and  America  also  areas  of 
various  manufactures? 

A  recent  cartoon  had  for  its  title — "John  Bull  and  his  coal 
piles  (t.  e. ,  coaling  stations)  rule  the  world ' '  ;  show  why  this 
statement  contains  a  great  deal  of  truth. 

What  are  some  of  the  advantages  of  steam-vessels  over  sailing- 
vessels  ? 

Whale  oil,  crude  turpentine,  kerosene,  and  gas  have  been  used 
each  in  turn  for  illuminants ;  what  is  the  advantage  of  each  over 
the  preceding? 

Describe  the  structure  of  an  ordinary  kerosene  lamp-burner,  an 
argand  burner,  a  Welsbach  burner. 

For  what  are  aniline,  parafnne,  naphtha,  and  carbolic  acid 
used  ? 

FOR    STUDY   AND    REFERENCE 

Obtain  specimens  of  anthracite,  bituminous,  and  cannel  coal, 
and  coke  for  comparison  and  study. 

Obtain  specimens  of  crude  petroleum,  naphtha,  refined  oil, 
aniline  dye,  parafnne,  and  carbolic  acid ;  note  the  properties  of 
each.     Throw  away  the  naphtha  after  using. 

Read  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  on  the  foregoing 
subjects. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
METALS    OF    THE    ARTS    AND    SCIENCES 

The  development  of  modern  civilization  is  directly  con- 
nected with  the  mining  and  manufacture  of  the  useful 
metals.  Their  effect  on  the  affairs  of  mankind  can  be 
rightly  understood  only  when  they  are  studied  in  their  re- 
lations to  one  another,  as  well  as  to  the  people  who  used 
them.  Next  to  the  discovery  of  the  use  of  fire,  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  use  of  metals  has  been  the  chief  thing  to 
develop  the  intellect  of  mankind.  When  human  beings  dis- 
carded natural  caves  for  artificially  constructed  dwellings — 
when  they  began  to  cook  their  food  and  clothe  their  bodies, 
they  required  tools.  These,  in  the  main,  consisted  of  the 
spears  and  arrow-heads  used  as  weapons  of  the  chase,  and 
the  axes  and  knives  used  as  constructive  tools. 

Rough  stone  gave  place  to  flint  because  the  latter  would 
take  a  better  edge.  For  the  same  reason  the  people  of 
central  Europe  sent  to  the  deserts  of  central  Asia  for  jade 
wherewith  to  make  axes  and  knives.  Again,  for  the  same 
reason,  jade  was  discarded,  because  an  alloy  of  copper  and 
tin  produced  a  bronze  that  would  not  only  take  a  sharper 
edge  than  stone,  but  it  was  hard  enough  to  cut  and  dress 
the  latter.  Egypt  rose  to  a  commanding  position  because  of 
her  control  of  the  copper  mines  in  the  Sinaitic  peninsula, 
and  subsequently  of  the  gold  products  coming  from  the 
upper  Nile. 

A  meridian  drawn  through  Cairo,  Egypt,  practically  di- 
vides the  world  into  two  kinds  of  civilization.  East  of  this 
meridian  the  population  is  almost  wholly  agricultural  and, 

159 


160  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

excepting  Japan  and  India,  the  character  of  the  civiliza- 
tion has  changed  but  little  in  the  past  2,000  years.  West 
of  the  line  the  population  is  essentially  characterized  as 
metal-workers.  It  controls  the  world — not  especially  by 
virtue  of  a  high  degree  of  intellectual  development,  but 
because  it  has  availed  itself  of  the  properties  and  charac- 
teristics of  metals  and  their  applications  to  commerce. 

The  four  metals  that  have  had  the  greatest  influence  on 
western  civilization  are  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  copper.  The 
discovery  of  gold  and  silver  has  always  resulted  in  a  rapid 
settlement  of  the  regions  in  which  the  discoveries  were 
made,  and  usually  in  the  building  of  great  industrial 
centres.  Thus,  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  was  the 
first  step  in  making  the  United  States  a  world  power.  The 
acquisition  of  so  large  an  amount  of  gold  caused  an  indus- 
trial expansion  that  hurried  the  Civil  War,  and  led  to  the 
manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  both  for  agricultural  ma- 
chinery and  railroad  transportation.  This,  in  turn,  brought 
the  country  so  closely  in  touch  with  the  affairs  of  China 
and  Japan,  that  European  and  American  diplomacy  in 
eastern  Asia  are  a  common  concern.  The  commercial 
position  of  Great  Britain  is  very  largely  due  to  her  iron 
mines. 

The  production  of  Bessemer  steel  at  a  price  far  less  than 
that  of  iron  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  low- 
ered the  cost  of  transporting  commodities  to  the  extent 
that  large  areas,  once  of  necessity  very  moderately  produc- 
tive of  food-stuffs,  are  now  densely  peopled  because  food- 
stuffs can  be  transported  to  these  regions  more  econom- 
ically than  they  can  be  grown  there.  Thus,  owing  to  the 
improvements  in  iron  and  steel  manufacture,  the  farmer 
of  Minnesota,  the  planter  of  Louisiana,  the  miner  of  Colo- 
rado, and  the  factory  operative  of  Massachusetts  have  each 
the  same  comforts  of  living  that  are  enjoyed  by  all  the 


162  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

others,  and  have  them  at  scarcely  more  than  half  the  cost 
of  fifty  years  ago. 

The  gradual  decrease  in  the  production  of  the  silver 
mines  near  the  present  site  of  Ergasteria  proved  a  begin- 
ning of  the  fall  of  Athens ;  and  when  gold  was  discovered  in 
the  Perim  Mountains  of  Macedonia,  the  seat  of  Greek  power 
moved  thither.  Philip  of  Macedon  hoarded  the  treasure 
from  the  mines  of  Pangaeus,  and  with  the  capital  thus  ac- 
quired his  son,  Alexander  the  Great,  conquered  the  East,  im- 
planted Hellenic  business  methods  there,  and  drew  the  vari- 
ous trade  routes  between  Europe  and  Asia  under  one  control. 

In  the  fifteenth  century  copper  from  the  mines  near 
Budapest  and  silver  from  the  Schwarz  Mountains  of  Ger- 
many were  the  resources  that  made  Germanic  Europe 
pre-eminent.  The  wresting  of  the  trade  in  these  two  met- 
als from  Venice  caused  the  rise  of  Antwerp  and  brought 
immense  gains  to  Lubeck,  London,  Brussels,  Augsburg, 
and  Nuremberg.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  copper  again  reached  a  high  position  of  import- 
ance from  the  fact  that  upon  it  largely  depends  electric 
motive  power  and  transportation. 

Iron. — Iron  is  one  of  the  most  widely  diffused  of  metals. 
It  is  abundant  in  the  sun ;  meteorites  contain  from  more 
than  ten  to  eighty  or  ninety  per  cent,  of  it ;  all  earths  and 
rocks  contain  at  least  traces  of  it ;  and  in  various  places 
the  deposits  of  ore  in  nearly  pure  form  aggregate  cubic 
miles  in  extent. 

In  only  a  few  localities  is  iron  ore  found  in  a  metallic  or 
"  native  "  form.  Many  meteorites  consist  of  metallic  iron 
mixed  with  nickel  and  manganese,  and  in  Greenland  a 
volcanic  dyke  or  ledge  of  metallic  iron  is  known  to  exist. 
The  iron  of  commerce  is  derived  from  "  ores,"  or  chemical 
compounds  of  iron  and  oxygen,  or  iron  and  carbon.  The 
cheapness  of   the  product  depends  upon  the  ease  with 


METALS   OF  THE   AliTS   AND   SCIENCES 


163 


which  the  ore  may  be  quarried,  transported  to  coal,  and 
smelted.  The  following  are  the  ores  commonly  employed 
in  the  production  of  iron  : 

Red  hematite  has  a  reddish  metallic  lustre  and  when  pure 
contains  seventy  per  cent,  of  iron.*  It  is  the  most  abundant 
of  the  workable  ores,  and  certainly  the  best  for  the  manu- 
facture of  Bessemer  steel.  The  ores  of  the  Lake  Superior 
region  are  mainly  red  hematite,  and  the  latter  constitutes 
more  than  four-fifths  of  the  output  of  the  United  States. 

Brown  hematite,  or  limonite,  has  a  chestnut  brown  color 
and  contains  very  nearly  sixty  per  cent,  of  iron*;  it  in- 

United  States 
Germany 
United.  Kingdom 
Hiissia 
Prance 

Austria-Hungary 
Belgium. 
Other  Countries 

THE  COMPARATIVE  PRODUCTION  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL 

eludes  the  "  bog  "  ores,  and  is  very  abundant.  Not  far 
from  one-quarter  of  the  Appalachian  ores  are  brown 
hematite  ;  it  constitutes  about  one  eighth  of  the  output  of 
the  United  States. 

Magnetic  iron  ore,  or  magnetite,  of  which  loadstone, 
a  natural  magnet,  is  an  example,  has  a  metallic,  steel  lustre 
and  contains  72.4  per  cent,  of  iron.*  Most  of  the  ores 
obtained  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  are  magnetite. 
The  magnetites  furnish  about  one-sixteenth  of  the  output 
of  the  United  States. 

Carbonate  of  Iron,  or  siderite,  occurs  in  a  few  localities, 

the  ore  produced  in  Ohio  being  almost  wholly  of  this  kind. 

*  These  percentages  are  on  the  supposition  that  the  ores  are  chemically 
pure ;  the  percentage  of  metal  actually  obtained  is  somewhat  less. 


0 

!        i 

!         ( 

i      i 

0       1 

2       1 

4       1 

6       1 

8       20       22      24       26      28 

Tl 

W>? 

\      \ 

M) 

n  i 

STEEL 

Production  in  1900 

in  Million  Metric  Tons, 

1  Metric  Ton  =  2204.6  Ids, 

164  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

It  contains  when  pure  about  forty-eight  per  cent,  of  iron.* 
It  constitutes  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  the  output  of  the 
United  States. 

Iron  pyrites,  or  sulphide  of  iron,  sometimes  called 
"  fools'  gold,"  is  a  very  common  mineral.  It  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  but  is  worthless  for  the 
production  of  iron ;  indeed,  the  presence  of  a  very  small 
percentage  of  sulphur  in  iron  renders  the  latter  worthless 
for  many  purposes. 

Extensive  deposits  of  iron  are  known  to  exist  in  very 
nearly  every  country  in  the  world,  but  those  which  can  be 
advantageously  worked  are  few  in  number.  In  order  to  be 
available,  the  deposits  must  be  within  easy  transporting 
distance  of  the  people  who  use  it,  and  likewise  within 
a  short  distance  of  the  coal  used  to  manufacture  it. 

For  these  reasons  most  of  the  workable  deposits  of 
ore  are  in  or  near  the  great  centres  of  population  in  west- 
ern Europe  and  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States ;  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  practically  all  the  iron  and  steel  of  the 
latter  country  is  produced  in  the  populous  centres  of  the 
Atlantic  slopes.  In  most  great  steel-making  districts  it  is 
essential  to  mix  the  native  ores  with  special  ores  brought 
from  a  distance,  the  latter  being  used  to  give  strength  and 
hardness  to  the  resulting  metal.  Ores  from  Sweden,  and 
from  Juragua,  Cuba,  are  employed  for  this  purpose  in 
the  steel-making  establishments  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  past  few  years  the  United  States  has  jumped 
from  an  insignificant  position  in  the  production  of  iron 
and  steel  to  the  first  rank  among  the  iron -producing 
countries.  This  great  advance  is  due  to  the  fortunate 
geographic  position  of  the  iron  ore  and  the  coal,  and  also 
to  the  discovery  of  the  Bessemer  process  of  making  steel. 

*  These  percentages  are  on  the  supposition  that  the  ores  are  chemically 
pure  ;  the  percentage  of  metal  actually  obtained  is  somewhat  less. 


METALS   OF  THE  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES  165 

Inasmuch  as  it  requires  the  expenditure  of  two  or  more 
tons  of  coal  in  the  manufacture  of  a  ton  of  steel,  it  is  more 
economical  to  ship  the  ore  to  the  vicinity  of  the  coal-mines 
than  vice  versa.  Formerly  iron-making  was  not  a  profit- 
able industry  in  the  United  States  unless  the  localities  in 
which  the  ore,  the  coal,  and  the  limestone  *  were  very 
near  one  another. 

These  conditions  still  obtain  in  the  southern  Appala- 
chian mineral  fields  ;  the  ore  and  the  coal  are  at  no  great 
distance  apart,  and  a  great  iron-making  industry,  in  which 
Birmingham  and  Bessemer  form  the  principal  centre,  has 
grown  into  existence.  For  the  greater  part  the  coal  is 
coked;  and  in  this  form  less  than  a  tonf  is  sufficient  to 
make  a  ton  of  pig-iron.  The  smelteries  and  rolling-mills 
are  built  at  places  where  the  materials  are  most  conven- 
iently hauled. 

In  the  past  few  years  the  iron  and  steel  industry  which 
formerly  centred  about  the  navigable  waters  at  the  head 
of  the  Ohio  Kiver,  has  undergone  a  readjustment.  Roll- 
ing-mills and  smelteries  exist  at  Pittsburg  and  vicinity,  and 
at  Youngstown,  New  Castle,  and  other  near-by  localities,  but 
greater  steel-making  plants  have  been  built  along  the  south 
shores  of  Lakes  Michigan  and  Erie,  all  of  which  have  come 
about  because  of  reasons  that  are  purely  geographic. 

Immense  deposits  of  excellent  hematite  ore  in  the  old 
mountain-ranges  near  Lake  Superior  have  recently  become 
available.  For  the  greater  part  the  ore  is  very  easily  quar- 
ried. In  many  instances  it  is  taken  out  of  the  quarry  or 
pit  by  steam-shovels  which  dump  it  into  self -discharging 

*  The  limestone  has  no  essential  part  in  the  smelting  of  the  ore  except 
to  produce  an  easily-flowing,  liquid  slag;  hence  it  is  called  a,  flux.  Some 
ores  smelt  and  flow  so  easily  that  a  flux  is  not  required. 

f  Under  ordinary  circumstances  about  two  tons  of  coal,  or  three-quarters 
of  a  ton  of  coke,  are  required  to  produce  a  ton  of  pig-iron. 


166 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


hopper-cars.  Thence  the  ore  is  carried  on  a  down  grade 
to  the  nearest  shipping-port  on  the  lake.  There  it  is 
dumped  into  huge  bunkers  built  at  the  docks,  and  from 
these  it  slides  down  chutes  into  the  holds  of  the  steam- 
barges.  A  6,000-ton  barge  is  loaded  in  less  than  two 
hours;  a  car  is  unloaded  in  a  few  seconds. 


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MOVEMENT   OF   IRON    ORE 


Water  transportation  is  very  cheap  compared  with  rail- 
way transportation,  even  when  the  road  is  built  and 
equipped  as  an  ore-hauling  road.  The  ore  is  therefore 
carried  a  distance  varying  from  one  thousand  to  one  thou- 
sand five  hundred  miles  for  less  than  it  could  be  loaded,  on 
cars  hauled  one-tenth  that  distance  by  rail,  and  unloaded. 

At  the  south  shores  of  Lakes  Michigan  and  Erie,  the  ore 
meets  the  coke  and  coal  from  the  Illinois  and  the  Ohio 
coal-fields,  and  as  a  result  new  centres  of  iron  and  steel 


168 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


manufacture  have  grown  up  along  this  line  of  "  least  resist- 
ance." The  ore  is  unloaded  at  the  docks  by  means  of 
mechanical  scoops  and  shovels.  So  cheaply  and  quickly 
is  it  mined  and  transported  that  it  is  delivered  to  the 
smelteries  at  a  cost  varying  from  $1.75  to  $3.25  per  ton. 

There  are  three  forms  in  which  iron  is  used — cast  iron, 
wrought  iron,  and  steel.  Cast  iron  is  crystalline  and  brit- 
tle. The  product  as  it  comes  from  the  blast  furnace  is 
called  pig-iron.  In  making  such  commodities  as  stoves, 
and  articles  that  do  not  require  great  strength,  the  pig-iron 


LAKE  SUPERIOR 
IR03  ORE  FIELDS. 

.Shipping  Ports  and  Docks 
shown' thus  :  • 


is  again  melted  and  cast  into  moulds  which  give  them  the 
required  shape.  Cast  iron  contains  from  one  to  five  per 
cent,  of  carbon. 

Wrought  iron  is  malleable,  ductile,  and  very  flexible ; 
when  pure  it  is  also  very  soft.  It  is  prepared  by  melting 
pig-iron  in  furnaces  having  such  a  shape  that  the  molten 
metal  can  be  stirred  or  "  puddled  "  in  contact  with  the  air. 
By  this  means  the  carbon  is  burnt  out,  and  while  still  at  a 
white  heat  the  pasty  iron  is  kneaded  or  "  wrought,"  in  order 
to  expel  other  impurities. 

Steel  is  a  form  of  iron  which  is  thought  to  contain  a 


METALS   OF  THE  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES  169 

chemical  compound  of  iron  with  carbon.  It  is  stronger 
than  iron  and  finer  in  grain.  Formerly,  steel  was  made  by 
packing  bars  of  pure  iron  in  charcoal  powder,  the  whole 
being  enclosed  in  clay  retorts  that  were  heated  to  white- 
ness for  about  three  days.  The  product  obtained  by  this 
method  is  known  as  cementation  steel.  It  is  still  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  cutlery,  tools,  and  fine  machinery;  it 
is  likewise  very  expensive.  In  smelting  certain  ores  it  is 
easy  to  burn  out  the  carbon  in  open  furnaces,  and  "  open- 
hearth  "  steel  is  an  important  factor. 

Just  about  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  when  the  rail- 
ways of  the  United  States  were  taxed  beyond  their  capacity 
to  carry  the  produce  of  the  country,  it  became  apparent 
that  something  more  durable  than  iron  must  be  used  for 
rails.  The  locomotives,  then  weighing  from  twenty-five 
to  thirty-five  tons  each,  were  too  light  to  haul  the  freight 
offered  the  roads ;  they  were  also  too  heavy  for  the  rails, 
which  split  at  the  ends  and  frayed  at  the  edges. 

The  Bessemer  process  of  making  steel  was  the  result  of 
the  demand  for  a  better  and  a  cheaper  method.  By  this 
process,  the  iron  is  put  into  a 


UNITED 
STATES 


Rest  of  the  World 


" converter"  along  with  cer- 
tain Swedish  or  Cuban  ores 
to  give  the  product  hardness.  IR0N  AND  STEEL 

A  hot  blast  is  then  forced  into  the  converter  which  not 
only  melts  the  mass  but  burns  out  the  excess  of  carbon 
as  well.  The  color  of  the  flame  indicates  the  moment 
when  the  conversion  to  steel  is  accomplished. 

In  1860,  before  the  establishment  of  the  Bessemer  proc- 
ess, steel  commanded  a  price  of  about  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  dollars  per  ton ;  at  the  beginning  of  the  twen- 
tieth century  steel  billets  were  about  eighteen  dollars  per 
ton.  In  western  Europe  and  the  United  States  there  are 
used  about  three  hundred  pounds  of  iron  and  steel  per 


170  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

capita ;  in  South  America  the  rate  of  consumption  is  about 
fifteen  pounds;  in  Asia  (Japan  excepted)  it  is  probably 
less  than  three  pounds. 

The  economic  results  of  the  Bessemer  process  are  very 
far-reaching.  Steam  boilers  of  steel  carry  a  pressure  of 
more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  to  each  square 
inch  of  surface — about  four  times  as  great  as  in  the  iron 
boilers  formerly  used.  Locomotives  of  eighty  tous  draw 
the  fast  passenger  trains  at  a  speed  of  sixty  miles  an 
hour.  Ponderous  compounding  engines  weighing  one 
hundred  and  twenty  tons  haul  ninety  or  more  steel  freight 
cars  that  carry  each  a  load  of  100,000  pounds.  The  iron 
rails  formerly  in  use  weighed  about  forty  pounds  per 
yard ;  now  steel  rails  of  one  hundred  pounds  per  yard  are 
employed  on  most  trunk  lines. 

In  the  large  commercial  buildings  steel  girders  have  en- 
tirely supplanted  timber,  while  in  nearly  all  modern  build- 
ings of  more  than  six  stories  in  height,  the  frame  is  con- 
structed of  Bessemer  steel.  Indeed,  a  steel-framed  building 
of  twenty-five  stories  has  greater  stability  than  a  brick  or 
stone  building  of  six.  Such  a  structure  as  the  "  Flatiron 
Building  "  in  New  York  or  the  Masonic  Temple  in  Chicago 
would  have  been  impossible  without  Bessemer  steel. 

In  ocean  commerce  Bessemer  steel  has  worked  even  a 
greater  revolution.  In  1860,  a  vessel  of  4,000  tons  dis- 
placement was  thought  to  be  almost  up  to  the  limit.  The 
Oceanic  of  the  White  Star  Line  has  a  displacement  of  about 
twenty-eight  thousand  five  hundred  tons.  This  is  nearly 
equalled  by  the  measurement  of  half  a  dozen  other  liners,  and 
is  exceeded  by  the  freighters  built  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Hill  for  the 
China  trade. 

HISTORICAL 
1619. — Iron  works  established  on  Falling  Creek,  Va. 
1643. — First  foundry  in  Massachusetts,  at  Lynn. 


From  a  copyrighted  photograph  by  C.  L.  Rtlfmantt,  N.  Y. 
STEEL  MANUFACTURE 
THE  FULLER  (FLATIRON)  BUILDING,  NEW   YORK  CITY 


172  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

1658.- — Blast  furnace  and  forge  at  New  Haven,  Conn. 

1679.— Father  Hennepin  discovers  coal  in  Illinois. 

1703. — Mordecai  Lincoln,  ancestor  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  estab- 
lishes iron  works  at  Scituate,  Mass. 

1717. — First  bar  iron  exported  from  American  Colonies  to  West 
Indies. 

1728.— Steel  made,  Hebron,  Ct. 

1732. — Father  of  George  Washington  establishes  furnace  in  Vir- 
ginia. 

1740. — First  iron  works  in  New  York,  near  Hudson. 

1750. — Bituminous  coal  mined  in  Virginia. 

1766. — Anthracite  coal  discovered  in  Pennsylvania. 

1770. — First  rolling-mill  in  Colonies,  Boonton,  N.  J. 

1801-1803. — Lake  Champlain  iron  district,  New  York,  developed. 

1812.— First  rolling-mill  at  Pittsburg. 

1828. — Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  first  steam  railway  in  the 
United  States,  begun. 

1829. — "Stourbridge  Lion,"  first  locomotive  in  America,  used  in 
Delaware  &  Hudson  Railway. 

1830.  —The  T  rail  invented  by  Robert  L.  Stevens. 

1830. — First  American  locomotive,  "Tom  Thumb,"  built  by 
Peter  Cooper  at  Baltimore. 

1830. — Twenty-three  miles  of  railway  in  the  United  States. 

1844. — Lake  Superior  iron  ores  discovered  by  William  Burt. 

1850. — First  shipment  of  Lake  Superior  ore,  ten  tons. 

1857. — Iron  industry  founded  in  Chicago. 

1862. — Phoenix  wrought  iron  column,  or  girder,  first  made. 

1864. — Bessemer  steel  first  made  in  the  United  States. 

1865. — First  Bessemer  steel  rails  in  the  United  States  rolled  at 
Chicago. 

1890. — First  armor-plate  made  in  the  United  States  rolled  at 
Bethlehem,  Pa. 

1890. — The  United  States  surpasses  Great  Britain  in  production 
of  pig-iron. 

1900. — The  United  States  leads  in  the  production  of  open-hearth 
steel. 

Gold. — Gold  is  one  of  the  metals  earliest  to  be  mined. 
It  is  mentioned  by  the  ancient  profane  as  well  as  by  sa- 
cred writers.     Pictorial  representations  of  fusing  and  work- 


LEACHING      (CYANIDE)    TANKS 

DISSOLVING  THE  GOLD  FROM 

THE  ROASTED  ORE 


STOPING   OUT  A  TUNNEL  INTERIOR  OF  MILL 

GOLD  MINING 


174  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

ing  the  metal  are  sculptured  on  early  Egyptian  tombs, 
and  beautiful  gold  ornaments  have  been  found  that  were 
made  by  the  prehistoric  peoples  who  once  occupied  ancient 
Etruria,  in  Italy.  Columbus  found  gold  ornaments  in  the 
possession  of  the  aboriginal  Americans.  The  Incas  of 
Peru  and  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico  possessed  large  quantities 
of  gold. 

Gold  is  one  of  the  most  widely  diffused  of  metals. 
Traces  of  it  are  found  in  practically  all  igneous  and  most 
sedimentary  rocks.  It  occurs  in  sea- water,  and  quite 
frequently  in  beach-sands.  Traces  of  it  are  also  usually 
to  be  found  in  alluvial  deposits  and  in  the  soils  of  most 
mountain-folds.  In  spite  of  its  wide  diffusion,  however, 
all  the  gold  that  has  been  mined  could  be  stored  readily 
in  the  vaults  of  any  large  New  York  bank. 

In  all  probability  most  of  the  gold  now  in  use  has  been 
deposited  by  solution  in  quartz  veins,  the  latter  usually 
filling  seams  and  crevices  in  granitic  or  volcanic  rocks. 
Quartz  veins  seldom  yield  very  great  returns,  but  they 
furnish  a  steady  supply  of  the  metal.  The  rock  must  be 
mined,  hoisted  to  the  surface,  and  crushed.  The  gold  is 
then  dissolved  by  quicksilver  (forming  an  amalgam  from 
which  the  quicksilver  is  removed  by  heat),  by  potassium 
cyanide  solution,  or  by  chlorine  solution. 

In  many  instances  the  quartz  veins  have  been  broken 
and  weathered  by  natural  forces.  In  such  cases  the  gold 
is  usually  carried  off  by  swiftly  running  water  and  de- 
posited in  the  channel  lower  down.  In  this  way  "placer" 
deposits  of  gold  occur.  Placer  deposits  are  sometimes 
very  rich,  but  they  are  quickly  exhausted.  The  first  gold 
discovered  in  California  was  placer  gold. 

Nearly  all  the  gold  mined  in  the  United  States  has 
come  from  the  western  highlands.  In  1900,  Colorado, 
California,    South    Dakota    (Black    Hills),    Montana,  and 


METALS   OF   THE  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES  175 

Alaska  yielded  about  seven-eighths  of  the  entire  product. 
The  placer  mines  of  Alaska  are  confined  mainly  to  the 
beach-sands  and  the  tributaries  of  Yukon  River.  Since 
1849  the  average  annual  yield  of  gold  in  the  United  States 
is  about  forty-three  million  dollars. 

The  Guinea  coast  of  Africa,  Australia,  California,  the 
Transvaal  of  South  Africa,  and  Venezuela  have  each  stood 
at  the  front  in  the  production  of  gold.  The  aggregate 
annual  production  of  the  world  has  increased  from  one 
hundred  and  sixty  million  dollars  in  1853  to  more  than 
three  hundred  million  dollars  in  1900. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  gold  product  is  used  in  gild- 
ing picture-frames,  book-titles,  sign-letters,  porcelain,  and 
ornamental  brass  work.  Practically,  all  of  this  is  lost,  and 
in  the  United  States  alone  the  loss  aggregates  about  fifteen 
million  dollars  yearly.  The  abrasion  and  unavoidable  wear 
of  gold  coin  is  another  great  source  of  loss. 

An  enormous  amount  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  jew- 
elry, most  of  which  is  used  over  and  over  again.  By  far  the 
greater  part,  however,  is  used  as  a  commercial  medium  of 
exchange — that  is,  as  coin.  For  this  purpose  its  employ- 
ment is  wellnigh  universal ;  and  indeed  this  has  been  its 
chief  use  since  the  beginning  of  written  history.  Gold  coin 
of  the  United  States  is  900  fine,  that  is,  900  parts  of  every 
thousand  is  pure  gold  ;  gold  coin  of  Great  Britain  is  916f 
fine.  In  each  case  a  small  amount  of  silver,  or  silver  and 
copper,  is  added  to  give  the  coin  the  requisite  hardness. 
The  coining  of  gold,  and  also  other  metals,  is  a  govern^ 
ment  monopoly  in  every  civilized  country. 

The  fiat  value  of  gold  throughout  the  commercial  world 
is  the  equivalent  of  $20.6718  per  troy  ounce  of  fine  metal ; 
an  eagle  weighs,  therefore,  2580  grains.  The  real  value, 
however,  is  reckoned  by  a  different  and  a  more  accurate 
standard,  namely,  the  labor  of  man,  and  this,  the  spo- 


176  COMMEECIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

radic  finds  of  placer  gold  excepted,  has  not  changed  much 
in  two  thousand  years  or  more.  The  increased  production 
has  scarcely  equalled  the  demand  for  the  metal ;  more- 
over, the  longer  a  mine  is  worked  the  greater  becomes  the 
expense  of  its  operation.  Improved  processes  for  the  ex- 
traction of  gold  have  not  created  any  surplus  of  gold  ;  in- 
deed, the  supply  is  not  equal  to  the  demand  ;  and  this  fact 
keeps  the  metal  practically  at  a  fixed  value. 

Silver. — Silver  is  about  as  widely  diffused  as  is  gold, 
but  it  is  more  plentiful.  It  is  found  sparingly  in  most  of 
the  older  rocks  and  also  in  sea-water.  It  was  used  by  the 
Greeks  for  coinage  more  than  eight  hundred  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  was  known  to  the  Jewish  people  in 
very  early  times.  According  to  the  writer  of  the  Book  of 
Kings  (1  Kings  x.  21),  "It  was  nothing  accounted  of 
in  the  days  of  Solomon,"  but  Tacitus  declares  that  in 
ancient  Germany  silver  was  even  more  valuable  than  gold. 
The  mines  of  Laureion  (Laurium)  gave  the  Greek  state 
of  Attica  its  chief  power,  and  the  failure  of  the  mines 
marked  the  beginning  of  Athenian  decline. 

Silver  is  rarely  found  in  a  metallic  state.  For  the 
greater  part  it  occurs  combined  with  chlorine  ("horn 
silver"),  or  with  sulphur  ("silver  glance"),  or  in  combi- 
nation with  antimony  and  sulphur  ("  ruby  ore  ").  The 
ranges  of  the  western  highland  region  of  the  American 
continent  yield  most  of  the  present  supply.  The  mines  of 
Colorado,  Montana,  Utah,  and  Idaho  produce  about  six- 
sevenths  of  the  yield  in  the  United  States,  which  in  1900 
was  74,500,000  ounces.  In  Europe  the  Hartz  Mountains 
have  been  famous  for  silver  for  several  centuries. 

About  four-fifths  of  the  silver  bullion  is  used  in  the  arts, 
most  of  it  being  manufactured  into  ornaments  or  into  table- 
service  called  "  plate."  A  considerable  amount  is  used  in 
photography,  certain  silver  salts,  especially  the  chloride 


mp:tals  of  the  arts  and  sciences  177 

and  the  bromide,  changing  color  by  exposure  to  the  light. 
The  remaining  part  of  the  silver  output  is  made  into  coin. 

The  ratio  of  silver  and  gold  has  fluctuated  much  in  the 
history  of  civilization.  In  the  United  States  the  value  of 
an  ounce  of  fine  silver  is  fixed  at  $1.2929,  thereby  making 
the  ratio  16  to  1.  The  silver  dollars,  900  fine,  were  coined 
on  this  basis,  weighing  412.5  grains.  With  the  tremendous 
output  of  the  silver  mines  between  1870  and  1880  the  price 
of  silver  fell  to  such  an  extent  that,  in  time,  most  countries 
limited  the  amount  of  coinage  or  demonetized  it  altogether. 
In  the  United  States  the  purchase  of  silver  bullion  for 
coinage  has  been  practically  suspended,  and  the  silver  pur- 
chased is  bought  at  the  bullion  value — about  fifty  cents  per 
troy  ounce  in  1900.  In  Japan  the  ratio  has  been  officially 
fixed  at  32  to  1. 

Copper. — Copper  is  probably  the  oldest  metal  known 
that  has  been  used  in  making  tools.  An  alloy  of  cop- 
per and  tin,  hard  enough  to  cut  and  dress  stone,  suc- 
ceeded the  use  of  flint  and  jade,  and  its  employment 
became  so  general  as  to  give  the  name  "  bronze  "  to  the 
age  following  that  characterized  by  the  use  of  stone 
implements. 

Copper  is  very  widely  distributed.  It  occurs  in  quanti- 
ties that  pay  for  mining  in  pretty  nearly  every  country  in 
the  world.  The  rise  of  Egypt  as  a  commercial  power  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  Egyptians  controlled  the  world's 
trade  in  that  metal,  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  the 
conquests  of  Cyprus  at  various  times  were  chiefly  for  the 
possession  of  the  copper  mines  of  Mount  Olympus. 

At  the  present  time  there,  are  several  great  centres  of 
production  which  yield  most  of  the  metal  used.  These  are 
the  Kocky  Mountain  region,  including  Mexico .;  the  Lake 
Superior  region  of  the  United  States  ;  the  Andean  region, 
including  Chile,  Peru,  Argentina,  and  Bolivia  ;  the  Iberian 


178  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

region,  consisting  of  Spain  and  Portugal ;  and  the  Hartz 
Mountain  region  of  Germany.  In  1900  they  produced  about 
four  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons,  of  which  two  hundred 
and  eighty  thousand  were  mined  in  the  United  States. 

Montana,  the  Lake  Superior  mines,  and  Arizona  are  the 
most  productive  regions  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
mines  of  these  three  localities  yield  more  than  half  the 
world's  product.  Of  these  mines  the  Calumet  and  Heel  a 
of  the  Lake  Superior  region  is  the  most  famous.  It  was 
discovered  by  Jesuit  explorers  about  1660,  but  was  not 
wrorked  until  1845.  It  is  one  of  the  most  productive 
mines  in  the  world,  its  yearly  output  averaging  fifty 
million  tons. 

The  export  trade  in  copper  is  very  important,  amounting 
at  the  close  of  the  past  century  to  about  one  hundred  and 
seventy  thousand  short  tons.  Of  this  amount,  half  goes  to 
Germany  (most  of  it  through  ports  of  the  Netherlands),  and 
one-fifth  each  to  France  and  Great  Britain.  The  market 
price  to  the  consumer  during  the  ten  years  closing  the  cen- 
tury averaged  about  sixteen  cents  per  pound.  Most  of  the 
product  is  exported  from  New  York  and  Baltimore.  The 
head-quarters  of  the  great  copper-mining  companies  of 
America  are  at  Boston.  The  imports  of  raw  ores  and  partly 
reduced  ores  called  "regulus,"  come  mainly  from  Mexico 
to  New  York  and  Baltimore,  and  from  Mexico  and  Japan 
to  Puget  Sound  ports.  The  most  important  American 
refineries  are  at  New  York  and  Baltimore. 

A  part  of  the  copper  is  mixed  with  zinc  to  form  brass, 
an  alloy  much  used  in  light  machinery.  A  considerable 
quantity  is  rolled  into  sheets  to  sheath  building  fronts  and 
the  iron  hulls  of  vessels.  By  far  the  greater  part,  however, 
is  drawn  into  wire  for  carrying  electricity,  and  for  this 
purpose  it  is  surpassed  by  silver  alone.  The  decrease  in 
the  price  of  copper  in  the  past  few  years  is  due,  not  to  a 


METALS   OF   THE   ARTS   AND   SCIENCES  179 

falling  off  in  the  demand,  but  to  methods  of  reducing  the 
ores  and  transporting  the  product  more  economically. 

Aluminium. — Aluminium  is  the  base  of  clay,  this  min- 
eral being  its  oxide.  It  occurs  in  the  various  feldspars 
and  feldspathic  rocks,  and  in  mica.  The  expense  of  ex- 
tracting the  metal  from  these  minerals  has  been  so  great 
as  to  prohibit  its  commercial  use.  In  1870  there  were 
probably  less  than  twenty  pounds  of  the  metal  in  exist- 
ence, and  it  was  to  be  found  only  as  a  curiosity  in  the 
chemical  laboratories.  The  discovery  that  the  metal  could 
be  extracted  cheaply  from  cryolite,  a  mineral  with  an  alu- 
minium base,  obtained  from  Ivigtut,  Greenland,  led  to  a 
sparing  use  of  the  metal  in  the  economic  arts. 

The  chief  step  in  the  production  of  the  metal  dates  from 
the  time  that  the  mineral  bauxite,  a  hydroxide  of  aluminium 
and  iron,  was  decomposed  in  the  electric  furnace.  The 
process  has  been  repeatedly  improved,  and  under  the  pat- 
ents covered  by  the  Hall  process  the  crude  metal  is  now 
produced  at  a  market  price  of  about  eighteen  cents  per 
pound.  The  entire  production  of  the  United  States  is  con- 
trolled by  the  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company,  which  also 
manufactures  much  of  the  commercial  product  of  England. 
The  competitor  of  the  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company  is  an 
establishment  in  Germany,  near  Bremen. 

Aluminium  does  not  corrode ;  it  is  easily  rolled, 
drawn,  or  cast ;  and,  bulk  for  bulk,  it  is  less  than  one-third 
as  heavy  as  copper.  Because  of  these  properties  it  has  a 
great  and  constantly  growing  economic  value.  Because  of 
its  greater  size,  a  pound  of  aluminium  wire  will  carry  a 
greater  electric  current  than  a  pound  of  copper  wire  of 
the  same  length.  It  therefore  has  an  increasing  use  as 
a  conductor  of  electricity. 

Bauxite,  the  mineral  from  which  the  metal  is  now 
chiefly   extracted,   is   obtained    in    two    localities.      One 


180  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

extends  through  Georgia  and  Alabama;  the  other  is  in 
Arkansas. 

Lead. — Lead  is  neither  so  abundant  nor  so  widely  dif- 
fused as  iron,  copper,  and  the  precious  metals,  but  the 
supply  is  fully  equal  to  the  demand.  Lead  ores,  mainly 
galena  or  lead  sulphide,  occur  abundantly  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  Colorado,  Idaho,  and  LTtah,  producing  more 
than  half  the  total  output  of  the  United  States.  In  these 
localities,  in  Mexico,  and  in  the  Andean  states  of  South 
America  it  is  used  mainly  in  the  smelting  of  silver  ores. 

Metallic  lead  is  used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  water- 
pipes,  and  for  this  purpose  it  must  be  very  nearly  pure. 
It  is  also  rolled  into  sheets  to  be  used  as  lining  for  water- 
tanks.  The  fact  that  the  edges  of  sheet-lead  and  the  ends 
of  pipes  may  be  readily  joined  with  solder  gives  to  lead  a 
great  part  of  its  economic  value.  Alloyed  with  arsenic  it 
is  used  in  making  shot ;  alloyed  with  antimony  it  forms 
type  metal ;  alloyed  with  tin  it  forms  pewter  and  solder. 

The  greater  part,  however,  is  manufactured  into  the 
carbonate  or  "  white  "  lead  that  is  used  as  a  pigment,  or 
paint.  Red  lead,  an  oxide,  is  a  pigment ;  litharge,  also  an 
oxide,  is  used  for  glazing  the  cheaper  kinds  of  pottery. 
About  two  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  tons  of  lead  are 
produced  in  the  United  States  and  one-half  as  much  is 
imported — mainly  from  Mexico  and  Canada.  The  lino- 
type machines,  now  used  in  all  large  printing  establish- 
ments, have  increased  the  demand  for  lead. 

Other  Metals. — Most  of  the  remaining  economic  met- 
als occur  in  small  quantities  as  compared  with  iron,  cop- 
per, gold,  and  silver.  Some  of  them,  however,  are  highly 
important  from  the  fact  that  in  various  industrial  proc- 
esses no  substitutes  for  them  are  known. 

Quicksilver,  or  mercury,  is  the  only  industrial  metal  that 
at  ordinary  temperatures  is  a  liquid.     It  is  the  base  of  the 


METALS   OF  THE   AETS  AND   SCIENCES  181 

0 

substance  calomel,  a  chloride,  and  corrosive  sublimate,  a 
dichloride,  both  of  which  are  employed  as  medicines.  It 
is  essential  in  the  manufacture  of  thermometers  and  bar- 
ometers, but  is  used  chiefly,  however,  as  a  solvent  of  gold, 
which  it  separates  from  the  finely  powdered  ore  by  solu- 
tion or  amalgamation.  Quicksilver  occurs  in  the  mineral 
cinnabar,  a  sulphide. 

Nearly  one-half  the  world's  product  comes  from  Califor- 
nia. The  New  Almaden  mines  of  Santa  Clara  County 
produce  over  five  thousand  flasks  (each  seventy -six  and 
one-half  pounds  net) ;  those  of  Napa  County  nearly  nine 
thousand  flasks  ;  the  mines  of  the  whole  State  yield  about 
twenty-six  thousand  flasks,  valued  at  $1,200,000.  Alma- 
den, Spain,  and  Idria,  Austria,  produce  nearly  all  the  rest 
of  the  output.  An  average  of  about  fifteen  thousand  flasks 
are  exported  from  San  Francisco,  mainly  to  the  mines  of 
Mexico,  and  Central  and  South  America. 

Tin  is  about  the  only  metal  of  industrial  value  whose  ores 
are  not  found  in  paying  quantities  in  the  United  States. 
Small  quantities  occur  in  San  Bernardino  County,  Cal., 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  Bering  Strait,  Alaska,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  either  will  ever  pay  for  development.  About 
three-fifths  of  the  world's  product  comes  from  the  Straits 
Settlements  on  the  Malay  Peninsula ;  the  near-by  islands 
of  Banca  and  Billiton  also  yield  a  considerable  quantity. 

The  mines  of  Cornwall,  England,  have  been  worked  for 
two  thousand  years  and  were  probably  the  source  of  the  tin 
that  made  the  "  bronze  age."  The  United  States  imports 
yearly  about  twenty  million  dollars  worth  of  tin,  about  half 
of  which  comes  from  the  Straits  Settlements.  This  is  used 
almost  wholly  for  the  manufacture  of  tin  plate* — that  is, 
sheet-iron  coated  with  tin.  Much  of  the  block  tin  im- 
ported from  Great  Britain  is  returned  there  in  the  form  of 
*  Terne  plate  is  sheet-iron  coated  with  an  alloy  of  lead  and  tin. 


182  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


• 


tiu  plate,  being  manufactured  in  the  United  States  much 
more  economically  than  in  Europe. 

Nickel  occurs  in  New  Caledonia,  in  Canada,  and  in  the 
State  of  Missouri.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  small 
coins  and  for  plating  iron  and  steel.  It  is  an  essential 
in  the  metal  known  as  "nickel  steel  "  which  is  now  gener- 
ally used  in  armor-plate  and  propeller-shafts,  about  four 
per  cent,  of  nickel  being  added  to  the  steel.  Most  of  the 
product  used  in  the  United  States  is  imported  torn 
Canada. 

Manganese,  a  metal  resembling  iron,  occurs  in  Russia, 
Brazil,  and  Cuba,  Russia  producing  about  half  the  total 
output.  It  is  used  mainly  to  give  hardness  to  steel.  The 
propeller-blades  of  large  steamships  are  usually  made  of 
manganese  bronze.  The  building  of  war-ships  in  the  United 
States  during  the  past  few  years  has  led  to  the  extensive 
use  of  manganese  for  armor-plate,  and  manganese  ores  to 
the  amount  of  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
tons  were  imported  in  1900.  More  than  one-half  of  this 
came  from  Russia  ;  most  of  the  remaining  half  from  Brazil. 

Zinc  is  abundant  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  world.  In 
the  United  States  the  best  known  mines  are  in  the  Galena- 
Joplin  District,  in  Missouri  and  Kansas,  which  produce 
about  two-thirds  of  the  home  product — mainly  from  the 
ore  blende,  a  sulphide.  There  are  also  extensive  zinc-min- 
ing operations  in  Illinois,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania, 
The  lower  Rhine  District,  Great  Britain,  and  Silesia  are  the 
chief  European  sources.  Sheet-zinc  is  found  in  nearly 
every  dwelling  in  the  United  States,  and  zinc-coated 
or  "galvanized"  iron  has  become  a  domestic  necessity. 
Zinc-white  is  extensively  used  as  a  pigment.  About  two 
hundred  and  fifty  million  pounds  of  crude  zinc,  or  "  spel- 
ter," are  produced  in  the  United  States ;  forty-five  million 
pounds  were  exported  in  1900,  mainly  to  Great  Britain. 


METALS   OF  THE  ARTS   AND   SCIENCES  183 

QUESTIONS   FOR   DISCUSSION 

What  are  the  qualities  that  make  iron  the  most  valuable  of 
metals  ? 

In  what  ways  does  commerce  depend  on  iron  and  steel  ? 

What  substances  are  used  for  food,  clothing,  or  domestic  pur- 
poses that  are  not  manufactured  by  the  aid  of  iron  ? 

Ingot  or  billet  steel  is  rated  at  about  one  cent  per  pound  ;  the 
hair-springs  of  watches  are  worth  several  thousand  dollars  per 
pound  ;  what  makes  the  difference  in  their  value? 

What  are  the  qualities  that  give  to  gold  its  value? 

Would  all  the  gold  mined  in  the  United  States  pay  the  national 
debt  at  the  end  of  the  Civil  War  ? 

What  causes  have  led  to  the  increasing  price  of  copper  during 
the  past  few  years  ? 

What  is  the  market  price  each  of  copper,  silver,  steel  rails,  and 
aluminium  to-day  ? 

FOR    STUDY    AND    REFERENCE 

Obtain  specimens  of  the  following  iron  ores  :  Hematite,  brown 
hematite,  magnetite,  carbonate,  and  pyrites.  Note  the  color  and 
physical  appearance  of  each  ;  scratch  the  first  four  with  a  very 
hard  steel  point  and  note  the  color  of  the  streak. 

Obtain  specimens  of  pig-iron,  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  and  cast 
steel ;  note  carefully  the  fracture  or  "break  "  of  each  ;  how  does 
cast  iron  differ  from  wrought  iron? 

Obtain  specimens  of  the  following  copper  ores  :  Malachite, 
azurite,  chalcopyrite,  and  red  oxide  ;  wet  a  very  small  fragment 
with  an  acid  and  note  the  color  when  it  is  held  in  the  flame  of  an 
alcohol  lamp  or  a  Bunsen  burner  ;  dissolve  a  crystal  of  blue  vit- 
riol (copper  sulphate)  in  water  and  note  what  occurs  if  the  end 
of  a  bright  iron  wire  be  dipped  in  the  solution. 

Name  the  various  uses  to  which  nickel,  tin,  lead,  and  alumin- 
ium are  put. 

Consult  the  chapters  on  these  subjects  in  any  cyclopaedia. 


CHAPTEK  XIV 

SUGAR  AND   ITS   COMMERCE 

The  term  sugar  is  applied  rather  loosely  to  a  large  num- 
ber of  substances  characterized  by  the  quality  of  sweet- 
ness. In  a  few  instances  the  name  is  given  to  certain 
mineral  salts,  such  as  sugar  of  lead,  but  in  the  main  the 
sugars  are  plant  products  very  similar  in  chemical  struct- 
ure to  the  starches.  They  are  very  closely  connected  with 
plant  growth,  and  even  in  animal  life,  starchy  substances 
are  changed  to  sugar  in  the  process  of  digestion.  Al- 
though sugar  does  not  sustain  life,  it  is  necessary  as  an 
adjunct  to  other  food-stuffs,  and  it  is  probably  consumed 
by  a  greater  number  of  people  than  any  other  food-stuffs 
except  starch  and  water. 

Three  kinds  of  sugar  are  found  in  commerce,  namely — 
cane-sugar,  arape-sugar,  and  mt7&-sugar.  Cane-sugar  occurs 
in  the  sap  of  the  sugar-cane,  sorghum-cane,  certain  of  the 
palms,  and  the  juice  of  the  beet.  Grape-sugar  is  the 
sweet  principle  of  most  fruits  and  of  honey.  Sugar  of 
milk  occurs  in  milk,  and  in  several  kinds  of  nuts. 

Sugar-Cane  Sugar. — Cane-sugar  is  so  called  because 
until  recently  it  was  derived  almost  wholly  from  the  sap 
of  the  sugar-cane  (Saccharum  officinarum).  The  plant  be- 
longs to  the  grass  family  and  much  resembles  maize  be- 
fore the  latter  has  matured.  It  is  thought  to  be  native  to 
Asia,  but  it  is  now  cultivated  in  nearly  all  tropical  coun- 
tries in  the  world. 

Practically  every  moist  tropical  region  in  the  world,  the 
basins  of  the  Kongo  and  Amazon  Eivers  excepted,  is  a 

185 


186  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

cane-sugar-producing  region.  As  a  rule  it  is  grown  in  the 
states  under  native  rule  for  home  consumption,  and  in 
European  colonial  possessions  for  commercial  purposes. 
India  and  China  are  probably  the  foremost  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar-cane  sugar,  but  the  product  is  not  ex- 
ported. Cuba,  Java,  the  Gulf  coast  of  the  United  States, 
Mauritius,  the  Philippine  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands  pro- 
duce the  most  of  the  supply  that  enters  into  commerce. 

Beet-Sugar. — During  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  demands  for  sugar  increased  so  greatly  that  it 
became  necessary  either  to  raise  the  price  of  the  commod- 
ity, or  else  to  utilize  some  plant  other  than  the  sugar-cane 
as  a  source.  After  a  few  years  of  experimental  work  it 
was  found  that  sugar  could  be  readily  extracted  from  the 
juice  of  the  common  beet  {Beta  vulgaris).  Several  varieties 
of  this  plant  have  been  improved  and  are  now  very  largely 
cultivated  for  the  purpose.  Beet-sugar  and  cane-sugar  are 
identical. 

Almost  all  the  beet-sugar  of  commerce  comes  from 
northwestern  Europe ;  Germany  leads  with  nearly  one- 
third  the  world's  product;  France,  Austria,  and  Russia 
follow,  each  producing  about  one-sixth.  A  small  amount 
is  produced  in  the  United  States — mainly  in  California 
and  Michigan.  The  area  of  production,  however,  is  in- 
creasing. 

Other  Cane-Sugars. — Maple-sugar  is  derived  from 
the  sap  of  several  species  of  maple-trees  occurring  mainly 
in  the  northeastern  United  States  and  in  Canada.  The 
sap  is  obtained  by  tapping  the  trees  in  early  spring,  a 
single  tree  often  yielding  several  gallons.  The  value  of 
maple-sugar  lies  mainly  in  its  pleasant  flavor.  It  is  used 
partly  as  a  confection,  but  in  the  main  as  a  sirup.  A  very 
large  part  of  the  maple-sirup  and  not  a  little  of  the  sugar 
is  artificial,   consisting  of   ordinary   sugar    colored    with 


SUGAR  AND   ITS   COMMERCE  187 

caramel  and  flavored  with  an  extract  prepared  from  the 
maple -tree. 

Sorghum-sugar  is  obtained  from  a  cane  known  as  Chi- 
nese grass,  or  Chinese  millet.  It  has  been  introduced  into 
the  United  States  from  southeastern  Asia  and  Japan. 
The  sorghum-cane  grows  well  in  the  temperate  zone,  and 
its  cultivation  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  States  has  been 
successful.  The  sugar  is  not  easily  crystallizable,  how- 
ever, and  it  is  usually  made  into  table-sirup. 

Maguey-sugar  is  derived  from  the  sap  of  the  maguey- 
plant  (Agave  Americana).  It  is  much  used  in  Mexico  and 
the  Central  American  states.  The  method  of  manufacture 
is  very  crude  and  the  product  is  not  exported.  Palm- 
sugar  is  obtained  from  the  sap  of  several  species  of  palm 
growing  in  India  and  Africa. 

Sugar  Manufacture.— Sugar  manufacture  includes  three 
processes — expressing  the  sap,  evaporating,  and  refining. 
The  first  two  are  carried  on  at  or  near  the  plantations ; 
the  last  is  an  affair  requiring  an  immense  capital  and  a 
most  elaborately  organized  plant.  The  refining  is  done 
mainly  in  the  great  centres  of  population  at  places 
most  convenient  for  transportation.  The  raw  sugar  may 
travel  five  or  ten  thousand  miles  to  reach  the  refinery  ; 
the  refined  product  rarely  travels  more  than  a  thousand 
miles. 

After  it  has  been  cut  and  stripped  of  its  leaves  the  sugar- 
cane is  crushed  between  powerful  rollers  in  order  to  ex- 
press the  juice.  The  sugar-beet  is  rasped  or  ground  to  a 
pulp  and  then  subjected  to  great  pressure.  The  expressed 
juice  contains  about  ten  or  twelve  per  cent,  of  sugar.  In 
some  factories  the  beet,  or  the  cane,  is  cut  into  thin  slices 
and  thrown  into  water,  the  juice  being  extracted  by  the 
solvent  properties  of  the  latter.  This  is  known  as  the 
"  diffusion  "  process. 


188  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  juice  is  first  strained  or  filtered  under  pressure  in 
order  to  remove  all  foreign  matter  and  similar  impurities. 
It  is  then  clarified  by  adding  slacked  lime,  at  the  same 
time  heating  the  liquid  nearly  to  the  boiling  point  and 
skimming  off  the  impurities  that  rise  to  the  surface.  The 
purified  juice  is  then  boiled  rapidly  in  vacuum  pans  until 
it  is  greatly  concentrated. 

When  the  proper  degree  of  concentration  is  reached, 
the  liquid  is  quickly  run  off  into  shallow  pans,  in  which 
most  of  it  immediately  crystallizes.  The  crystalline  por- 
tion forms  the  raw  sugar  of  commerce ;  the  remaining 
part  is  molasses.  The  whole  mass  is  then  shovelled  into 
a  centrifugal  machine  which  in  a  few  minutes  separates 
the  two  products. 

In  purchasing  raw  sugar,  the  refiner  was  formerly  at  a 
loss  to  know  just  how  much  pure  sugar  could  be  made 
from  a  given  weight  of  the  raw  sugar.  In  order  to  aid  in 
making  a  correct  determination,  the  Dutch  government 
formerly  prepared  sixteen  samples  put  up  in  glass  flasks 
and  sealed.  These  samples  varied  in  color  according  to 
the  amount  of  pure  sugar  contained.  The  pure  solution 
was  known  in  commerce  as  No.  16  Dutch  standard,  and 
this  was  generally  taken  all  over  the  world  as  the  stand- 
ard of  pure  sugar.  Within  recent  years  the  polariscope, 
an  optical  instrument  that  determines  the  percentage  of 
sugar  by  means  of  polarized  light,  has  largely  replaced  the 
Dutch  standard. 

The  refineries,  as  a  rule,  are  built  with  reference  to  a 
minimum  handling  and  transportation  of  the  raw  product. 
The  cane-sugar  refineries  are  mainly  at  the  great  seaports, 
where  the  raw  sugar  does  not  pay  railway  transportation. 
The  beet-sugar  refineries  are  in  the  midst  of  the  beet- 
growing  districts.  So  nearly  perfect  and  economically 
managed  are  these  processes,  that  raw  sugar  imported  from 


SUGAR  AND  ITS  COMMERCE  189 

Europe  or  from  the  West  Indies,  at  a  cost  of  from  two  and 
a  quarter  to  two  and  a  half  cents  per  pound,  is  refined  and 
sold  at  retail  at  about  five  cents. 

The  margin  of  profit  is  so  very  close,  however,  that  in  the 
United  States,  as  well  as  most  European  states,  the  sugar 
industry  is  protected  by  government  enactments.  In  the 
United  States  imported  raw  sugar  pays  a  tariff  in  order  to 
protect  the  cane-sugar  industry  of  the  Gulf  coast  and  the 
beet-sugar  grower  of  the  Western  States.  The  duty  at  the 
close  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  about  1.66  cents  per 
pound ;  or,  if  the  sugar  came  from  a  foreign  country  paying 
a  bounty  on  sugar  exported,  an  additional  countervailing 
duty  equal  to  the  bounty  was  also  charged. 

In  the  various  states  of  western  Europe  the  beet-sugar 
industry  is  governed  by  a  cartel  or  agreement  among  the 
states,  which  makes  the  whole  business  a  gigantic  combina- 
tion arrayed  against  the  tropical  sugar  interests.  In  gen- 
eral, the  government  of  each  state  pays  a  bounty  on  every 
pound  of  beet-sugar  exported.  The  real  effect  of  the  ex- 
port bounty  is  about  the  same  as  the  imposition  of  a  tax  on 
the  sugar  purchased  for  consumption  at  home. 

Two-thirds  of  the  entire  sugar  product  are  made  from 
the  beet,  at  an  average  cost  of  about  2.5  cents  a  pound.  In 
the  tropical  islands  the  yield  of  cane-sugar  per  acre  is 
about  double  that  of  beet-sugar  and  it  is  produced  for 
about  five  dollars  less  per  ton.  This  difference  is  in  part 
offset  by  the  fact  that  the  raw  cane-sugar  must  pay  trans- 
portation for  a  long  distance  to  the  place  of  consumption, 
and  in  part  by  the  government  bounties  paid  on  the  beet 
product. 

Both  the  political  and  the  economic  effects  of  beet  sugar- 
making  have  been  far-reaching.  In  Germany  the  agri- 
cultural interests  of  the  country  have  been  completely  re- 
organized.    The  uncertain  profits  of  cereal  food-stuffs  have 


190  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

given  place  to  the  sure  profits  of  beet-sugar  cultivation, 
with  the  result  that  the  income  of  the  Germans  has  been 
enormously  increased.  In  the  other  lowland  countries  of 
western  Europe  the  venture  has  been  equally  successful. 
Even  the  Netherlands  has  profited  by  it. 

In  the  case  of  Spain,  the  result  of  beet-sugar  cultivation 
was  disastrous.  The  price  of  cane-sugar  in  Cuba  and  the 
Philippine  Islands  fell  to  such  a  low  point  that  the  islands 
could  not  pay  the  taxes  imposed  by  the  mother  country. 
Instead  of  lowering  the  taxes  and  adjusting  affairs  to  the 
changed  conditions,  the  Spaniards  drove  the  islands  into 
rebellion,  and  the  latter  finally  resulted  in  war  with  the 
United  States,  and  the  loss  of  the  colonies.  Great  Britain 
wisely  adjusted  her  colonial  affairs  to  the  changed  condi- 
tions, but  the  British  colonies  suffered  greatly  from  beet- 
sugar  competition. 

Production  and  Consumption. — The  production  and 
consumption  of  sugar  increased  about  sevenfold  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  increase  being 
due  very  largely  to  the  decreased  price.  Thus,  in  1850, 
white  (loaf)  sugar  was  a  luxury,  retailing  at  about  twenty 
cents  per  pound  ;  in  1870  the  wholesale  price  of  pure  gran- 
ulated sugar  was  fourteen  cents ;  in  1902  it  was  not  quite 
five  cents. 

Although  the  tropical  countries  are  greatly  handicapped 
by  the  political  legislation  of  the  European  states,  they 
cannot  supply  the  amount  of  sugar  required,  unless  the  area 
of  production  be  greatly  extended.  It  is  also  certain  that 
without  governmental  protection,  sugar  growing  in  the 
temperate  zone  cannot  compete  with  that  of  the  tropical 
countries. 

Of  the  eight  million  tons  of  sugar  yearly  consumed,  two- 
thirds  are  beet-sugar.  The  annual  consumption  per  capita 
is  about  ninety  pounds  in  Great  Britain,  seventy  pounds 


SUGAR   AND   ITS   COMMERCE  191 

in  the  United  States,  and  not  far  from  thirty-five  pounds 
in  Germany  and  France.  In  Kussia  and  the  eastern  Euro- 
pean countries  it  is  less  than  fifteen  pounds. 

Molasses. — The  molasses  of  commerce  is  the  uncrys- 
tallizable  sugar  that  is  left  in  the  vacuum  pans  at  the 
close  of  the  process  of  evaporation.  The  molasses  formerly 
known  as  "  sugar  house  "  is  a  filthy  product  that  nowadays 
is  scarcely  used,  except  in  the  manufacture  of  rum.  The 
color  of  molasses  is  due  mainly  to  the  presence  of  "  cara- 
mel "  or  half -charred  sugar  ;  it  cannot  be  wholly  removed 
by  any  ordinary  clarifying  process. 

Purified  molasses  is  usually  known  as  "  sirup,"  and 
much  of  it  is  made  by  boiling  a  solution  of  raw  sugar  to  the 
proper  degree  of  concentration.  A  considerable  part  is 
made  from  the  sap  of  the  sorghum-cane,  and  probably  a 
larger  quantity  consists  of  glucose  solution  colored  with 
caramel.  Maple-sirup,  formerly  a  solution  of  maple-sugar, 
is  now  very  largely  made  from  raw  cane-sugar  clarified  and 
artificially  flavored. 

Glucose. — Glucose,  or  grape-sugar,  is  the  natural  sugar 
of  the  grape  and  most  small  fruits.  Honey  is  a  nearly 
pure,  concentrated  solution  of  glucose.  Grape-sugar 
has,  roughly,  about  three-fifths  the  sweetening  power  of 
cane-sugar.  Natural  grape-sugar  is  too  expensive  for 
ordinary  commercial  use  ;  the  commercial  product,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  artificial,  and  is  made  mainly  from  corn- 
starch. 

Glucose  is  employed  in  the  cheaper  kinds  of  confec- 
tionery in  the  United  States  ;  most  of  it,  however,  is  ex- 
ported to  Great  Britain,  the  annual  product  being  worth 
about  four  million  dollars.  From  the  fact  that  it  can  be 
made  more  economically  from  corn  than  from  any  other 
grain,  practically  all  the  glucose  is  made  in  the  United 
States. 


192  COMMEEOIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

QUESTIONS  FOR   DISCUSSION 

It  frequently  happens  that  the  prices  of  sugar  and  tin-plate 
rise  and  fall  together ;  show  how  the  fruit-crop  may  cause  this 
fluctuation. 

Which  of  the  possessions  of  the  United  States  are  adaptable 
for  cane-sugar  ? — for  beet-sugar  ? 

In  what  ways  has  the  manufacture  of  sugar-brought  about  in- 
ternational complications  ? 

What  is  meant  by  "  Dutch  Standard"  tests  ?— by  polariscope 
tests  ? 

FOR  REFERENCE  AND  STUDY 

Obtain  specimens  of  rock  candy,  granulated  sugar,  raw  sugar, 
and  caramel ;  observe  each  carefully  with  a  magnifying  glass  and 
note  the  difference. 

World's  Sugar  Production. 


CHAPTEE  XV 
FORESTS  AND  FOREST  PRODUCTS 

Outside  the  food-stuffs,  probably  no  other  material  is 
more  generally  used  by  human  beings  than  the  products 
of  the  forests.  More  people  are  sheltered  by  wooden 
dwellings  than  by  those  of  brick  or  stone,  and  more  peo- 
ple are  warmed'  by  wood  fires  than  by  coal.  Even  in 
steam-making  a  considerable  power  is  still  produced  by 
the  use  of  wood  for  fuel. 

Neither  stone  nor  metal  can  wholly  take  the  place  of 
wood  as  a  building  material ;  indeed,  for  interior  fittings, 
finishings,  and  furniture,  no  artificial  substitute  has  yet 
been  found  that  is  acceptable.  For  such  purposes  it 
is  carried  to  the  interior  of  continents  and  transported 
across  the  oceans ;  and  although  the  cost  has  enormously 
increased,  the  demand  has  scarcely  fallen  off. 

Forest  Areas. — The  great  belts  of  forests  girdle  the 
land  surface  of  the  earth.  A  zone  of  tropical  forest 
forms  a  broad  belt  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  but  mainly 
north  of  it.  This  forest  includes  most  of  the  ornamental 
woods,  such  as  mahogany,  ebony,  rosewood,  sandal-wood, 
etc.  It  also  includes  the  most  useful  teak  as  well  as  the 
rubber-tree  and  the  cinchona.  Another  forest  belt  in  the 
north  temperate  zone  is  situated  mainly  between  the 
thirty-fifth  and  fiftieth  parallels.  It  traverses  middle  and 
northern  Europe  and  the  northern  United  States. 

This  forest  contains  the  various  species  of  pine,  cedar, 
and  other  conifers,  the  oaks,  maples,  elms,  birches,  etc. 

193 


194  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Most  of  the  forests  of  western  Europe  have  been  greatly 
depleted,  though  those  of  Norway  and  Sweden  are  still 
productive.  The  forests  of  the  United  States,  extending 
from  Maine  to  Dakota,  have  been  so  wellnigh  exhausted 
that  by  1950  only  a  very  little  good  lumber-making  timber 
will  be  left. 

The  destruction  of  forests  has  been  most  wasteful.  When 
a  forest-covered  region  is  settled,  a  large  area  is  burnt  off 
in  order  to  clear  the  land  for  cultivation.  In  many  in- 
stances the  fires  are  never  fully  extinguished  until  the 
forest  disappears.  The  timber  of  the  United  States  has 
been  depleted  not  only  by  frequent  fires  but  in  various 
other  ways.  The  lumbermen  take  the  best  trees  and 
these  are  cut  into  building-lumber.  The  railways  follow 
the  lumbermen,  cutting  out  everything  suitable  for  ties. 
The  paper-makers  vie  with  the  tie-cutters,  and  what  is  left 
is  the  plunder  of  the  charcoal-burner. 

Forestry. — In  most  of  Europe  the  care  of  the  remain- 
ing forests  is  usually  a  government  charge.  Only  a  cer- 
tain number  of  mature  trees  may  be  removed  each  year, 
and  many  are  planted  for  each  one  removed — in  the  aggre- 
gate, several  million  each  year.  In  the  United  States, 
where  the  value  of  the  growing  timber  destroyed  by  fire 
each  year  nearly  equals  the  national  debt,  not  very  much 
has  been  done  to  either  check  the  ravage  or  to  reforest  the 
denuded  areas.  Many  of  the  States,  however,  encourage 
tree-planting.  In  several,  Arbor  Day  is  a  holiday  provided 
by  law. 

The  general  Government  has  established  timber  pre- 
serves in  several  localities  in  the  West.  The  State  of 
New  York  has  converted  the  whole  Adirondack  region  into 
a  great  preserve.  Forest  wardens  and  guards  are  em- 
ployed both  to  keep  fires  in  check  and  to  prevent  the 
ravages  of  timber  thieves ;  excepting  the  State  preserves 


196  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

however,  the  means  of  prevention  are  inadequate  for  either 
purpose. 

To  be  valuable  for  lumber  of  the  best  quality,  a  forest 
tree  must  be  "  clear " ;  that  is,  it  must  be  free  from 
knots  at  least  fifteen  feet  from  the  ground.  In  the  case 
of  pines  and  cedars,  the  clear  part  of  the  trunk  must 
have  a  greater  length.  To  produce  such  conditions,  the 
trees  must  grow  thickly  together,  in  order  that  the  lower 
branches  may  not  mature. 

The  growth  of  trees  thus  set  is  very  slow.  Isolated  pine- 
trees  will  reach  the  size  large  enough  for  cutting  in  about 
fifty  years,  but  the  lumber  will  be  practically  worthless 
because  of  the  knots.  On  the  other  hand,  pine  forests 
with  the  trees  so  thickly  set  as  to  make  a  clear,  merchant- 
able lumber  require  at  least  a  century  for  maturity.*  Oak 
forests  require  a  much  greater  period. 

As  a  rule,  the  forest  growths  of  the  United  States  are 
found  in  the  areas  characterized  by  sandy  and  gravelly 
soils.  Thus,  the  glaciated  region  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  for  the  greater  part  is  forest-covered.  The  sand 
barrens  along  the  Atlantic  coast  usually  are  forest  areas. 
The  older  bottom-lands  of  most  rivers  are  often  forest- 
covered,  especially  when  their  soil  is  coarse  and  sandy. 

There  are  large  areas,  however,  in  both  the  United 
States  and  Europe,  that  are  treeless.  In  some  instances 
this  condition,  without  doubt,  resulted  from  the  fires  that 
annually  burnt  the  grass.  With  the  cessation  of  the  prai- 
rie fires,  forest  growths  have  steadily  increased. 

In  other  instances  these  areas  are  treeless  because  the 
seeds  of  trees  have  never  been  planted  there.  The  high 
plains  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are 
an  example.     This  region  is  deficient  in  the  moisture  re- 

*  Heredity  is  likewise  a  factor.  The  seeds  of  knotty,  scraggly  trees  are 
very  apt  to  produce  trees  of  their  own  kind  and  vice  versa. 


FORESTS   AND   FOREST   PRODUCTS  197 

quired  to  give  young  trees  the  vigorous  start  that  will 
carry  them  to  maturity.  Moreover,  the  westerly  winds 
and  the  streams  of  this  region  come  from  localities  also 
deficient  in  forestry,  and  there  are  therefore  no  seeds  to 
be  carried. 

As  a  rule,  the  distribution  of  forests  is  effected  by  the 
winds  and  by  m  oving  water.  The  prevailing  westerly  winds 
of  the  temperate  zones  have  carried  many  species  east- 
ward and  have  extended  the  forest  areas  in  that  direction. 
Freshets,  floods,  and  overflows  have  been  even  more  active 
in  carrying  seeds,  sprouts,  and  even  trees  into  new  terri- 
tories. Waves  and  currents  have  likewise  played  a  similar 
part.  Wherever  the  soil  of  the  region  into  which  the 
species  have  been  carried  is  moist  and  nutritious,  the  forest 
growth  has  usually  extended. 

The  Pine  Family. — The  pine  family  includes  the 
various  species  of  pine,  tamarack,  spruce,  hemlock,  fir, 
juniper,  larch,  cypress,  and  cedar.  A  few  members  of  the 
family  thrive  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  temperate  zone, 
but  for  the  greater  part  they  flourish  between  the  for- 
tieth and  sixtieth  parallels.  Most  of  the  species  found  in 
low  latitudes  are  mountain-trees.  They  constitute  the 
greater  part  of  the  American  and  Kussian  forests.  The 
American  pine  forest  is  thought  to  be  the  largest  in  the 
world. 

The  ivhite  pine  (Pinus  strobus)  is  the  most  valuable  mem- 
ber of  the  family.  Its  value  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact 
that  the  wood  is  soft,  clear,  and  easily  worked,  and  in  part 
to  the  accessibility  of  the  forests.  Not  much  inroad  has 
yet  been  made  upon  the  great  Eussian  forest,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  timber  is  too  far  away  from  seaports  and 
water  transportation.  Rough  lumber  becomes  too  ex- 
pensive for  use  when  transported  by  land,  but  it  will 
stand  the  expense  of  shipment  by  water  many  miles. 


198  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  Georgia  or  long-leafed  pine  {Finns  palustris)  is  also 
commonly  called  pitch  pine,  turpentine  pine,  and  southern 
pine;  it  grows  chiefly  along  the  south  Atlantic  coast  and 
in  the  northern  counties  of  Georgia.  It  is  harder  than 
white  pine  and  makes  excellent  flooring. 

The  sugar  pine  {Pinus  lambertiana)  occurs  mainly  in 
Oregon  and  California.  The  grain  is  fine  and  soft  and  the 
trees  reach  a  large  girth. 

The  loblolly  pine  (Pinus  taida)  has  a  considerably  larger 
area  than  the  Georgia  pine,  extending  into  Indian  Terri- 
tory. The  short-leaf  pine  {Pinus  echinata)  occurs  in  small 
areas  from  New  York  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  across 
to  Missouri ;  it  is  the  Chattahoochee  pine  of  Florida.  The 
pitch  pine  {Pinus  rigida)  occurs  in  various  areas  mainly 
north  of  the  Ohio  Eiver  and  west  of  the  prairies.  The 
lumber  cut  annually  from  these  pines  aggregates  about 
thirty  billion  feet. 

The  common  ivhite  cedar  {Chamcecyparis  thyoides)  oc- 
curs along  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts  nearly  to  the 
Mississippi.  On  account  of  its  fine  grain  it  is  much  used 
in  cabinet  work  and  as  a  finishing  wood.  Bed  cedar,  prob- 
ably a  different  species,  occurs  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 
It  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  lead-pencils,  and 
the  forests  are  wellnigh  exhausted. 

The  redwoods  are  confined  to  the  California  coast, 
mainly  in  the  coast  ranges,  near  the  ocean.  Ordinary 
redwood  {Sequoia,  sempervirens)  resembles  red  cedar,  is 
soft,  and  very  fine  in  grain,  and  shrinks  but  little  in  season- 
ing. It  is  a  most  valuable  timber  both  for  common  and 
for  ornamental  use.  It  very  frequently  attains  a  diam- 
eter of  five  or  six  feet ;  the  big  tree  sometimes  exceeds 
sixteen  feet  in  diameter  and  reaches  a  height  of  nearly 
four  hundred  feet. 

Other  Industrial  Woods. — The  oaks,  like  the  pines, 


FORESTS   AND   FOREST   PRODUCTS  109 

form  a  nearly  continuous  belt  across  the  northern  conti- 
nents, lying  mainly  south  of  the  pines  ;  they  do  not  extend 
much  south  of  the  thirtieth  parallel.  The  white  oak  of  the 
New  England  plateau  and  Canada  commands  a  high  price  on 
account  of  its  strength  ;  a  considerable  quantity  is  exported. 

The  "  quartering "  of  the  lumber  used  in  ornamental 
work  is  produced  by  sawing  the  logs,  which  have  been 
split  in  quarters,  so  that  the  silver-grain  shows  on  the 
faces  of  the  boards.  The  bark  of  the  oak  is  rich  in  tannic 
acid  and  it  is  much  used  in  tanning  leather.  Cork  oak 
(Quercus  suber)  grows  mainly  in  Spain  and  Algeria. 

Black  lualnut  (Juglans  nigra)  grows  in  the  river-bottoms 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  in  Texas.  The  merchantable 
supply  is  not  great,  and  the  wood  is  therefore  growing 
more  valuable  each  year.  Hickory  is  used  where  great 
strength  is  required,  and  also  for  various  tool-handles. 
Maple  is  largely  employed  in  making  furniture.  Ash  is  a 
very  common  wood  for  tool-handles. 

Shade-Trees  and  Ornamental  Woods.— A  large 
number  of  trees  are  yearly  transplanted,  or  else  grown 
from  seed,  to  be  used  as  ornamental  shade-trees.  For  this 
purpose  the  elm,  maple,  acacia  ("  locust "),  linden  ("  lime  "), 
catalpa,  ash,  horse-chestnut  ("  buckeye  "),  poplar,  and  wil- 
low are  most  common  in  ordinary  temperate  latitudes,  both 
in  Europe  and  America.  In  warmer  latitudes  the  Austra- 
lian eucalyptus  ("red  gum"  and  "blue  gum"),  magnolia, 
palmetto,  laurel,  arbutus,  and  tulip  are  common.  The  local 
trade  in  ornamental  trees  is  very  heavy ;  the  trade  is  local 
for  the  reason  that  the  transportation  of  them  is  very  ex- 
pensive. 

Tropical  Woods  and  Tree  Products.— Many  of  the 
tropical  woods  are  in  demand  on  account  of  their  beautiful 
appearance,  and  in  many  species  this  quality  is  combined 
with  strength  and  hardness.     Mahogany  is  obtained  from 


200  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Mexico  and  the  Central  American  states,  and  also  from 
the  West  Indies.  The  former  is  classed  as  "  Honduras  "  ; 
the  latter  is  generally  known  as  San  Domingo  mahogany 
and  commands  the  highest  price.  Boseivood  is  obtained 
from  Brazil,  and  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  piano-cases. 
Both  are  cut  into  thin  veneers,  to  be  glued  to  a  less  ex- 
pensive body. 

Ebony  is  the  heart  of  a  species  of  persimmon  obtained 
mainly  in  Ceylon  and  the  East  Indies.  Yery  little  of  the 
so-called  ebony  is  genuine,  most  of  the  ebony  of  commerce 
consisting  of  fine-grained  hardwood,  stained  black.  Jar- 
rah,  an  Australian  wood,  is  now  very  generally  used  for 
street-paving,  and  for  this  purpose  it  has  no  superior. 
Teak  probably  has  no  equal  for  strength  and  durability. 
It  is  not  touched  by  the  teredo  and  other  marine  worms. 

Boxwood  (Buxus  balearica)  is  a  high-growing  tree,  native 
to  India,  but  growing  best  in  the  islands  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  wood  is  very  hard,  of  yellowish-brown  color, 
and  so  fine  in  grain  that  it  finds  a  ready  market  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  world.  Probably  the  larger  part  is  used 
by  engravers.  A  large  amount  of  the  wood  is  also  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  folding-rules,  and  in  inlaying.  Con- 
stantinople is  the  principal  market,  and  nearly  ten  thou- 
sand tons  of  the  selected  wood  are  sold  yearly. 

Lignum  vitce,  or  guaiac  wood  (Guaiacum  officinale),  grows 
profusely  in  the  West  Indies  and  along  the  Spanish  Main. 
It  is  used  both  in  medicine  and  in  the  arts.  Shavings  of 
the  wood  steeped  in  water  were  once  considered  a  cure-all, 
hence  the  name.  The  wood  is  very  hard,  heavy,  and  is 
split  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  It  is  therefore  much  em- 
ployed in  making  mallet-heads,  tool-handles,  nine-pin  balls, 
and  pulley-blocks.  In  tropical  countries  it  is  employed 
for  railway  ties.  West  India  ports  are  the  chief  markets, 
and  the  United  States  is  the  chief  consumer. 


Copyright,  i8gS,  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 

THE  LUMBER  INDUSTRY— A  LOGGING  STREAM,  MENOMINEE,  WIS. 


202  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Logwood  is  the  wood  of  a  tree  {Hcematoxylon  campechia- 
num)  growing  in  Central  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
The  best  quality  comes  from  Campeche,  and  it  is  marketed 
mainly  from  Central  American  ports.  It  is  almost  uni- 
versally used  for  dyeing  the  black  of  woollen  and  cotton 
textiles,  and  logwood  blacks  are  the  standard  of  color- 
prints. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

In  what  structures  has  timber  been  supplanted  by  iron  and 
steel ? 

In  what  manufactured  article  has  timber  supplanted  the  use 
of  rags? 

When  a  pine  forest  is  cut  away,  what  kinds  of  timber  are  apt 
to  come  up  in  place  of  the  pines  ? 

In  what  manner  does  the  railway  draw  upon  the  forests  ? — the 
paper-maker? — the  farmer?— the  tanner? — the  beaver? — the  te- 
redo, or  ship- worm  ? 

From  what  country  or  countries  do  the  following  come:  box- 
wood, rosewood,  sandal-wood,  cinchona,  bog  oak,  jarrah? 

FOR  STUDY  AND  REFERENCE 

Make  a  list  of  the  forestry  growing  in  the  State  in  which  you 
live  ;  so  far  as  possible,  obtain  a  specimen  of  each  wood,  prepared 
so  as  to  show  square,  oblique,  split,  and  polished  sections;  for 
what  purpose,  if  any,  is  each  used  ? 

Consult  "Check-list  of  Forestry  of  the  United  States"  (U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture). 


CHAPTEK  XYI 

SEA    PRODUCTS   AND    FURS 

The  world's  fish-catch  amounts  probably  to  more  than 
one-quarter  of  a  billion  dollars  in  value  and  employs  up- 
ward of  a  million  people ;  in  the  United  States  200,000 
are  employed.  In  some  localities,  such  as  the  oceanic 
islands,  far  distant  from  the  grazing  lands  of  the  conti- 
nents, the  flesh  of  fish  is  about  the  only  fresh  meat  obtain- 
able. Even  on  the  continents  fish  is  more  available  and 
cheaper  than  beef.  The  fish-producing  areas  pay  no 
taxes  ;  they  require  no  cultivation  ;  moreover,  they  do  not 
require  to  be  purchased.  In  general,  fish  supplements 
beef  as  an  article  of  food ;  it  is  not  a  substitute  for  the 
latter. 

The  whale-catch  excepted,  fish  are  generally  caught  in 
the  shallow  waters  of  the  continental  coasts.  The  fish,  in 
great  schools,  resort  to  such  localities  at  certain  seasons, 
and  the  seasons  in  which  they  school  is  the  fisherman's 
opportunity.  For  the  greater  part,  such  shallows  and  banks 
are  spawning-places.  Most  of  the  fish,  however,  are  caught 
off  the  Atlantic  coasts  of  Europe  and  North  America,  these 
localities  being  nearest  to  the  great  centres  of  population. 

Whales. — The  whale  is  sought  mainly  in  cold  waters, 
and  at  the  present  time  the  chief  whaling-grounds  are  in 
the  vicinity  of  Point  Barrow.  In  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  whale-fishing  was  an  industry  involving 
hundreds  of  vessels  and  a  large  aggregate  capital.  The 
industry  centred  about  New  England  seaports. 


204  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  train-oil  obtained  from  the  blubber  of  the  animal 
was  used  partly  as  a  lubricant,  but  mainly  for  illuminating 
purposes.  For  this  purpose,  however,  it  has  been  super- 
seded by  coal-oil,  gas,  and  electricity.  It  is  still  in  de- 
mand as  a  lubricant,  but  the  whale-oil  of  commerce  is  quite 
as  apt  to  come  from  the  blubber  of  the  porpoise  or  the  sea- 
cow  as  from  the  right  whale.  Whalebone  is  a  horny  sub- 
stance taken  from  the  animal's  jaw,  and  is  worth  from  three 
dollars  to  eight  dollars  per  pound.  It  is  used  chiefly  in 
the  manufacture  of  whips.  For  other  purposes,  steel,  hard 
rubber,  and  celluloid  have  taken  its  place. 

The  substance  called  spermaceti  is  derived  from  the 
sperm-whale,  an  inhabitant  of  warm  ocean-waters.  Sper- 
maceti is  identical  in  its  physical  properties  with  paraffine, 
and  the  latter  is  now  almost  universally  its  substitute. 

Ambergris,  thought  to  be  a  morbid  secretion  or  disease 
of  the  sperm-whale,  is  found  in  the  body  cavity  of  the 
animal  and  also  in  masses  floating  in  the  sea.  It  is  used 
chiefly  to  give  intensity  to  the  odor  of  perfumes,  and  the 
best  quality  brings  as  much  as  five  dollars  per  ounce. 
Most  of  the  ambergris  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Bahama  Islands. 

Cod. — In  the  amount  of  the  product  the  cod-fisheries 
are  the  most  important.  The  meat  of  the  fish  is  not  strong 
in  flavor,  and  it  is  cured  with  little  expense.  So  valuable 
is  the  annual  catch  that  the  banks  and  shallows  which  the 
schools  frequent  are  governed  by  international  treaties. 

The  cod  is  a  cold-water  fish,  and  the  fishing-grounds 
are  confined  to  rather  high  latitudes.  The  coast-waters 
of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  the  shores  of  the  Cana- 
dian coast,  especially  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  are 
the  chief  areas.  The  fishing- grounds  of  the  Canadian 
coast  are  closed  to  foreign  vessels  inside  a  three-mile  limit ; 
beyond  the  limit  they  are  occupied  mainly  by  Canadian, 


SEA    PRODUCTS   AND   FUKS  205 

French,  and  American  fishermen.  By  the  terms  of  trea- 
ties foreign  vessels  may  enter  the  three-mile  limit  under 
restriction  to  purchase  bait  and  food- supplies,  and  to  cure 
their  fish. 

A  large  part  of  the  cod-catch  is  exported.  Tropical 
countries  buy  much  of  the  product.  In  such  countries  it 
is  more  wholesome  than  meat ;  it  is  cheaper ;  moreover, 
the  salted  cod  will  keep  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time. 
A  large  part  of  the  catch  is  sold  to  the  Catholic  states  of 
Europe  and  America,  where  during  certain  times  the  eat- 
ing of  the  flesh  of  animals  is  forbidden.  Gloucester,  Mass., 
London,  England,  and  Trondhjem,  Norway,  are  great 
markets  for  salted  fish.  The  oil  from  the  liver  of  the  cod 
is  much  used  in  medicine. 

Herring,  Alewives,  and  Sardine. — The  herring  is  a 
much  smaller  fish  than  the  cod,  and,  commercially,  is  much 
less  important.  They  school  in  about  the  same  waters  as 
the  cod,  but  are  caught  at  a  different  season,  gill-nets  being 
usually  employed.  Practically  no  distinction  is  made  be- 
tween full-grown  herring  and  alewives  of  the  same  size. 
The  fish  are  usually  cured  by  smoking,  pickling,  or  salting, 
and  in  this  form  are  either  exported  or  sold  in  interior 
markets. 

The  true  sardine  is  found  in  latitudes  a  little  farther 
south  than  the  schooling-grounds  of  the  cod.  The  most  im- 
portant fisheries  are  along  the  coasts  of  the  Latin  states  of 
Europe.  Sardine  fishing  is  a  great  industry  all  along  the 
New  England  coast  of  the  United  States,  but  the  "  sar- 
dines "  marketed  from  this  region  are  young  herring.  In- 
deed, nearly  all  sorts  of  small  fry  are  sold  in  boxes  bear- 
ing spurious  French  labels. 

Salmon. — Most  of  the  salmon  are  caught  in  the  rivers 
flowing  into  the  North  Pacific  Ocean.  The  fish  are  caught 
in  traps  and  weirs  at  the  time  of  the  spring  run,  when  they 


206  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

ascend  the  river  to  spawn.  The  rivers  are  frequently  so 
congested  with  the  salmon  that  thousands  of  tons  are 
caught  in  a  single  stream  during  the  run. 

The  salmon  canneries  of  the  Columbia  River  are  very 
extensive  establishments,  but  in  the  past  few  years  they 
have  been  surpassed  by  the  Alaskan  fisheries,  which  pro- 
duce not  far  from  fifty  million  pounds  each  year.  The 
dressed  fish  is  cooked  by  steam,  canned,  and  exported  to 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  growth  and  development  of  the 
industry  has  also  made  an  enormous  demand  on  the  tin 
mines  of  the  world.  Canned  salmon  is  the  largest  fish 
export  of  the  United  States.  There  are  extensive  salmon- 
fisheries  in  Norway,  Japan,  and  Russia. 

Other  Fish. — Mackerel  and  haddock  are  caught  near  the 
shores  of  the  North  Atlantic.  Most  of  the  mackerel-catch 
is  pickled  in  brine  and  sold  in  small  kegs  known  as  "kits." 
The  menhaden-cntch  of  the  North  Atlantic  is  converted  into 
fertilizer.  The  halibut  is  a  large  fish  that  is  rarely  pre- 
served. The  area  in  which  it  is  caught  is  about  the  same 
as  that  of  the  cod.  Shad  are  usually  caught  when  as- 
cending the  rivers  of  the  middle  Atlantic  coast.  In  the 
United  States,  Chesapeake,  Delaware,  and  New  York 
Bays  yield  the  chief  supply.  The  bluefish  and  barracuda 
are  warm-water  fish.  The  market  for  fresh  fish  has  been 
greatly  enlarged  by  the  use  of  refrigerator-cars. 

The  sturgeon  is  captured  mainly  in  the  rivers  and  lakes 
of  the  temperate  zone.  Those  of  the  Black  Sea  some- 
times attain  a  weight  of  2,000  pounds.  The  flesh  is  of 
less  importance  than  the  eggs,  of  which  caviare  is  made. 
Russian  caviare  is  sold  all  over  Europe  and  America, 
and  not  a  small  part  of  the  product  is  made  in  Maine. 
The  caviare  made  from  the  roe  of  the  Delaware  River 
sturgeon  is  exported  to  Germany.  The  tunny  is  confined 
to  Mediterranean  waters. 


SEA  PRODUCTS   AND  FURS  207 

The  anchovy  is  caught  on  the  coast  of  Europe  ;  most  of 
the  product  is  preserved,  or  made  into  the  well-known 
"anchovy  sauce."  The  beclie-de-mere,  or  "sea  cucumber," 
is  a  product  of  Australasian  and  Malaysian  waters.  Al- 
most the  whole  catch  is  purchased  by  the  Chinese,  and  it  is 
exported  to  all  countries  having  a  Chinese  population. 

Oysters  and  Lobsters. — The  oyster  is  among  the 
foremost  sea  products  of  the  United  States  in  value.  The 
oyster  thrives  best  in  moderately  warm  and  sheltered 
waters.  The  coves  and  estuaries  along  the  middle  Atlantic 
coast  produce  the  best  in  the  world.  Chesapeake  Bay  and 
Long  Island  Sound  yield  the  greater  part  of  the  output. 
In  the  latter  waters  elaborate  methods  of  propagation  are 
carried  out,  and  the  yearly  crop  is  increasing  both  in  qual- 
ity and  quantity.  The  output  of  the  Chesapeake  beds 
has  decreased  materially ;  that  of  the  Long  Island  Sound 
beds  has  increased. 

Oysters  are  plentiful  along  the  Pacific  coast  of  the 
United  States  and  also  in  European  coast- waters,  but  they 
are  inferior  in  size  and  quality.  The  use  of  refrigerator- 
cars  and  vessels  has  extended  the  trade  to  the  extent  that 
fresh  oysters  are  shipped  to  points  2,000  miles  inland; 
they  are  also  exported  to  Europe.  Baltimore  is  the  chief 
oyster-market. 

The  consumption  of  the  lobster  has  been  so  great  that 
the  catch  of  the  New  England  coast  has  decreased  about 
one-half  in  the  past  fifty  years,  and  the  United  States  is 
now  an  importer.  Most  of  the  import,  amounting  to  about 
one  million  dollars  yearly,  comes  from  Canada.  The  so- 
called  lobsters  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States 
are  not  lobsters,  but  crayfish. 

Fish  Hatcheries.— The  demand  for  fish  has  grown  so 
great  in  past  years  that  in  many  countries  the  waters,  es- 
pecially the  lakes  and  rivers,  are  restocked.     The  eggs  are 


\ 


208  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Latched  and  the  young  fry  are  fed  until  they  are  large 
enough  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The  chief  hatchery 
and  laboratory  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission  is 
at  Woods  Holl,  Mass.  As  many  as  860,000,000  eggs, 
small  fry,  and  adult  fish  have  been  distributed  in  a  single 
year.  The  State  of  New  York  has  also  a  similar  d  \rt- 
ment  for  restocking  its  waters. 

Sponge. — This  substance  is  practically  the  skeleton  of 
a  low  order  of  animal,  growing  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 
The  sponge  is  cut  from  the  place  of  attachment,  and  the 
gelatinous  matter  is  washed  away  after  putrefaction.  The 
chief  sponge-fisheries  are  in  the  neighborhood  of  Florida 
and  the  Bahama  Islands. 

Seal. — The  fur-seal  is  an  amphibian,  found  only  in  cold 
waters.  A  few  pelts  are  obtained  along  the  Greenland 
coast,  but  the  chief  sealing-grounds  of  the  world  have  been 
at  the  Pribilof  Islands,  in  Bering  Sea.  The  pelts  of  the 
young  males  only  are  taken.  The  rookeries  of  the  Pri- 
bilof Islands  have  been  so  nearly  exhausted,  that  the  kill- 
ing season  has  been  suspended  for  a  term  of  years.  Much 
illicit  seal-catching  is  still  going  on,  however. 

The  skins  are  taken  to  London,  via  San  Francisco,  where 
the  fur  is  dyed  a  rich  brown  color;  London  is  the  chief 
market  for  dyed  pelts ;  San  Francisco  for  raw  pelts  ;  and 
New  York,  Paris,  and  St.  Petersburg  for  garments.  The 
pelts  of  the  sea-otter  are  obtained  mainly  in  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Other  Furs. — The  furs  employed  in  the  finest  garments 
are  in  part  the  pelts  of  land  animals  living  in  polar  regions. 
The  sable,  stone-marten,  otter,  beaver,  and  red  fox  are  the 
most  valuable.  The  Persian  lamb,  however,  is  not  a  polar 
animal.  The  Russian  Empire  and  Canada  are  the  chief 
sources  of  supply.  The  Hudson  Bay  Company,  with  head- 
quarters at  Fort  Garry,  near  Winnipeg,  controls  most  of  the 


SEA   PRODUCTS   AND   FURS  209 

fur-trade  of  North  America  ;  the  Russian  furs  are  marketed 
mainly  at  Lower  Novgorod.  Leipzig,  Germany,  is  also  an 
important  fur-market. 

Enormous  quantities  of  rabbit-skins  from  Australia  and 
nutria  from  Argentina  are  imported  into  the  United  States 
ai  1  Europe  for  the  manufacture  of  the  felt  of  which  hats 
a  j  made.  The  amount  of  this  substance  may  be  realized 
when  one  considers  that  not  far  from  two  hundred  million 
people  in  the  two  countries  wear  felt  hats. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   DISCUSSION 

Note  an  instance  in  which  the  search  for  deep-sea  fishing- 
grounds  has  resulted  in  the  discovery  of  unknown  lands. 

Why  are  not  whale  products  as  essential  now  as  a  century  ago  ? 

What  international  complications  have  arisen  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  concerning  the  cod-fisheries  ? — 
the  seal-catch  ? 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  UNITED  STATES— THE  SEAPORTS  AND  THE 
ATLANTIC     COAST-PLAIN 

The  United  States  of  America  together  with  the  posses- 
sions included  within  the  domain  of  the  Republic  comprise 
an  area  somewhat  greater  than  that  of  Europe. 

With  respect  to  latitude,  the  position  of  the  main  body 
of  the  United  States  is  extremely  fortunate.  Practically 
all  its  area  is  situated  in  the  warmer  half  of  the  temperate 
zone.  Only  a  small  part  lies  beyond  the  northern  limit  of 
the  corn  belt ;  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  are  cultivated  suc- 
cessfully throughout  four-fifths  of  its  extent  in  latitude ; 
grass,  and  therefore  cattle  and  sheep  are  grown  in  nearly 
every  part.  Coal,  iron,  copper,  gold,  and  silver,  the  min- 
erals and  metals  which  give  to  a  nation  its  greatest  mate- 
rial power,  exist  in  abundance,  and  the  successful  working 
of  these  deposits  have  placed  the  country  upon  a  very  high 
commercial  plane. 

Topographically  the  United  States  may  be  divided  into 
the  following  regions : 

The  Atlantic  Coast-Plain, 

The  Appalachian  Ranges  and  the  New  England  Plateau 

The  Basin  of  the  Great  Lakes, 

The  Northern  Mississippi  Valley  Region, 

The  Southern  Mississippi  Valley  and  Gulf  Coast, 

The  Arid  Plains, 

The  Plateau  Region, 

The  Pacific  Coast  Lowlands. 

The  topographic  and  climatic  features  of  these  various 

211 


UNITED    STATES— THE   SEAPORTS  213 

regions  have  had  a  great  influence  not  only  on  the  political 
history  of  the  country,  but  their  effect  has  been  even 
greater  in  determining  its  industrial  development.  They 
have  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  various  indus- 
tries, each  in  the  locality  best  adapted  to  it,  instead  of 
their  diffusion  without  respect  to  the  necessary  conditions 
of  environment. 

The  foregoing  regions  are  also  approximately  areas  of 
fundamental  industries.  Thus,  the  New  England  plateau 
supplies  the  rest  of  the  United  States  with  light  manufact- 
ures, such  as  cotton  textiles,  woollen  clothing,  hats,  shoes, 
cutlery,  books,  writing-paper,  household  metal  wares,  etc., 
but  sells  the  excess  abroad.  The  middle  and  southern  Ap- 
palachians, with  the  coal  which  forms  their  chief  resource, 
supply  the  rest  of  the  country  with  structural  steel,  from 
ores  obtained  in  the  lake  regions,  and  sell  the  excess  to 
foreign  countries. 

The  northern  Mississippi  Yalley  grows  nearly  one-fourth 
of  the  world's  wheat-crop.  The  wheat  of  this  region  and  the 
Pacific  coast  lowlands  supplies  the  country  with  bread-stuffs, 
and  exports  the  excess  to  western  Europe.  The  Gulf  states, 
which  produce  three-fourths  of  the  world's  cotton-crop,  sup- 
ply the  whole  country  and  about  one-half  the  rest  of  the 
world  besides  with  cotton  textiles.  The  grazing  regions 
produce  an  excess  of  meat  for  export ;  the  western  high- 
lands furnish  the  gold  and  silver  necessary  to  carry  on 
the  enormous  commerce. 

In  the  last  twenty  years  the  imports  of  merchandise  per 
capita  varied  but  little  from  $11.50 ;  the  exports  per  capita 
varied  from  about  $12  to  more  than  $18. 

The  Atlantic  Coast-Plain  and  the  Seaports. — 
Throughout  most  of  its  extent  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the 
United  States  is  bordered  by  a  low  coast-plain.  Along  the 
northeastern  coast  of  the  United  States  the  coast-plain  is 


214  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

very  narrow ;  south  of  New  York  Bay  it  has  a  width  in 
some  places  of  more  than  two  hundred  miles. 

The  existence  of  this  plain  has  had  a  marked  effect  on 
the  commercial  development  of  the  country.  The  sinking 
or  "  drowning  "  of  the  northern  part  of  it  has  made  an  ex- 
ceedingly indented  coast.  The  drowned  valleys,  enclosed 
by  ridges  and  headlands,  form  the  best  of  harbors,  and 
nearly  all  of  them  are  northeast  of  New  York  Bay.  South 
of  New  York  Bay  good  harbors  are  comparatively  few. 
For  the  greater  part  they  occur  only  when  old,  buried 
river-channels  permit  approach  to  the  shore. 

The  most  important  port  of  entry  in  these  harbors  is 
Neio  York,  and  it  derives  its  importance  from  two  factors. 
It  has  a  very  capacious  harbor,  into  which  vessels  drawing 
as  much  as  thirty-five  feet  may  enter ;  its  situation  at  the 
lower  end  of  a  series  of  valleys  and  passes  makes  it  almost 
a  dead  level  route  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  The  importance  of  New  York  as  the  commercial 
gateway  between  European  ports  and  the  food-producing 
region  of  the  American  continent  began  when  the  Erie 
Canal  was  opened  between  the  Great  Lakes  and  tide-water. 
The  completion  of  the  canal  for  the  first  time  opened  the 
rich  farming  lands  of  the  interior  to  European  markets. 
Probably  a  greater  tonnage  of  freight  is  carried  yearly 
over  this  route  than  over  any  other  channel  of  trade  in 
the  world. 

Not  far  from  two-thirds  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the 
country  passes  through  the  port  of  New  York.  The  water- 
front of  the  city  has  an  aggregate  length  of  about  three 
hundred  miles,  of  which  one-third  is  available  for  anchor- 
age. The  docks  and  piers,  including  those  of  Jersey  City 
and  Hoboken,  aggregate  about  ninety  miles  in  frontage. 

About  sixteen  thousand  sea-going  craft  enter  and  clear 
yearly,  and  an  average  of  nearly  twenty  large  passenger 


UNITED   STATES— THE   SEAPORTS 


215 


BOSTON  HARBOR. 

SCALE  OF   STATUTE   MILES. 


and  freight  steamships  arrive  and  clear  daily,  about  one- 
half  of  them  being  foreign.  The  latter  receive  their  car- 
goes from  about  three  thousand  freight-cars  that  are  daily 
switched  into  the  various  freight- yards,  a  large  part  of 
which  is  through  freight  from  the  west. 

The  port  of  entry  of  New  York  is  a  centre  of  population 
of  about  four  million,  and  although  there  are  the  in- 
dustries usually 
found  in  great 
communities, 
the  greater  busi- 
ness enterprises 
practically  re- 
duce themselves 
to  export,  im- 
port, and  ex- 
change.  For 
this  reason  New 
York  City  is  the 
financial,  as  well 
as  the  commer- 
cial centre  of  the 
continent.  Most 
of  the  great  in- 
dustrial corpor- 
ations of  the  country  have  their  head  offices  in  the  city. 
These  are  financed  by  more  than  one  hundred  banks, 
together  with  a  clearing-house  whose  yearly  business 
amounted  in  1902  to  considerably  more  than  seventy 
billions  of  dollars.* 

Boston  has  been  one  of  the  leading  ports  of  the  United 

*  This  sum  represents  more  than  ten  times  the  amount  of  gold  coin 
now  in  existence.  Less  than  five  per  cent,  of  the  business  of  the  great 
industrial  centres  is  a  cash  business.    Even  if  the  money  existed,  the  trans- 


216  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

States  for  considerably  more  than  a  century.  It  ranks 
second  among  the  ports  of  the  United  States.  Regular 
lines  of  transit  connect  it  with  the  principal  ports  of  Great 
Britain  and  Canada.  The  coast  trade  is  also  very  heavy. 
Boston  is  the  financial  and  commercial  centre  of  New 
England ;  the  cotton,  woollen,  and  leather  goods  passing 
through  the  port  find  their  way  to  nearly  every  inhabited 
part  of  the  world.  The  city  controls  a  considerable  export 
trade  of  food-stuffs  from  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley.  The 
vessels  entering  and  clearing  at  Boston  indicate  a  move- 
ment of  about  four  million  five  hundred  thousand  tons, 
about  one-fourth  that  of  New  York.  The  clearing-house 
exchanges  average  about  six  billion  dollars  yearly. 

Philadelphia,  on  account  of  its  distance  inland,  is  not 
fortunately  situated  for  ocean  commerce.  Steamships  of 
deep  draught  reach  their  docks  at  the  lower  end  of  the  city 
under  their  own  steam,  but  sailing-craft  pay  heavy  towage 
fees.  There  are  regular  lines  to  Liverpool,  Antwerp,  West 
Indian  ports,  Baltimore,  and  Boston.  Philadelphia  is  the 
centre  of  the  anthracite  coal  trade,  and  this  is  the  chief 
factor  of  its  domestic  trade.  The  imports  of  fruit  from  the 
West  Indies,  carpet-wool  from  Europe,  and  raw  sugar  from 
the  West  Indies,  form  the  greater  part  of  its  foreign  busi- 
ness. The  manufactures  are  mainly  carpets  and  rugs,  loco- 
motives and  iron  steamships,  and  refined  sugar.  The  car- 
pet-weaving and  the  ship-building  plants  are  among  the 

fer  of  such  immense  sums  would  greatly  retard  commerce.  In  order  to 
effect  a  speedy  settlement  of  payments,  clearing-houses  are  established. 
At  the  clearing-house  the  representatives  of  the  various  banks  meet  daily 
and  liquidate  the  checks  drawn  against  one  another;  and  although  the  total 
yearly  volume  of  payment  aggregates  the  sum  mentioned  above,  the  bal- 
ances for  a  year  are  but  little  more  than  two  billion  dollars.  Even  this 
does  not  always  represent  cash  payment,  for  a  bank  that  is  a  debtor  to 
another  at  the  close  of  one  day  may  be  a  creditor  for  an  equal  sum  on  the 
next. 


UNITED   STATES — THE   SEAPORTS 


217 


largest  in  the  world.  The  ocean  movement  of  freight  is 
more  than  three  million  five  hundred  thousand  tons  yearly. 
The  business  of  the  clearing-house  in  1902  aggregated 
nearly  six  billion  dollars. 

Baltimore  is  likewise  handicapped  by  its  distance  inland. 
Sailing-vessels,  however,  require  only  a  short  towage,  the 
docks  being  scarcely  a  dozen  miles  from  Chesapeake 
Bay.  The  harbor  is  deep  and  capacious.  The  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Baltimore  &  Ohio  railway  systems  have  made 
Baltimore  an  importantrail  way  centre.  The  completion 
of  the  Gould  railway  system  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
has  made  the  city  second  to  New  York  only  in  the  ex- 
port of  corn,  wheat, 
flour,  and  tobacco.  The 
most  noteworthy  local 
industry  is  the  oyster 
product,  which  is  the 
greatest  in  the  world. 
Nearly  ten  thousand 
people  are  employed, 
and  during  the  busy 
season — from  Septem- 
ber to  the  end  of  April 
— about  thirty  carloads 
of  oysters  a  day  are 
shipped. 

The  yearly  movement  of  marine  freight,  entering  and 
clearing,  aggregates  about  three  million  tons.  In  1902  the 
clearing-house  exchanges  aggregated  about  two  and  one- 
quarter  billion  dollars. 

Portland,  Me.,  has  good  harbor  facilities,  but  is  distant 
from  the  great  lines  of  traffic.  Steamship  lines,  which  in 
summer  make  Montreal  a  terminal  point,  occasionally  make 
Portland  their  winter  harbor.     Newport  Neivs,  Savannah, 


Light  House' 
Inlet    (j 

0 


CHARLESTON   HARBOR 


218  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Charleston,  and  Brunswick  are  growing  in  importance  as 
clearing  ports  for  the  cotton  and  produce  from  the  region 
west  of  them.  Norfolk  obtains  importance  on  accouDt  of 
the  United  States  Navy-Yard ;  it  is  also  the  great  peanut- 
market  of  the  world. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

What  are  the  requisites  of  a  good  seaport  ? 

What  is  meant  by  the  draught  of  a  vessel  ? 

For  what  purposes  are  pilots? 

How  are  navigable  channels  marked  and  designated  ? 

From  the  Statistical  Abstract  find  six  or  more  of  the  leading 
exports  from  each  of  the  following  ports:  New  York,  Bostons 
Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and  the  port  nearest  which  you  live. 

FOR  COLLATERAL  REFERENCE 

Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States. 

Statesman's  Year-Book. 

Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States — Chapter  II. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  UNITED  STATES— THE  NEW  ENGLAND  PLATEAU 
AND  THE  APPALACHIAN  REGION 

The  manufacturing  regions  of  the  United  States,  which 
connect  the  country  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  include  main- 
ly the  New  England  plateau  and  the  Appalachian  ranges. 

The  New  England  Plateau. — This  region  embraces 
the  New  England  States  and  practically  includes  all  the 
eastern  part  of  New  York  and  northern  New  Jersey.  The 
abruptly  sloping  surface  affords  a  great  wealth  of  water- 
power,  and  the  region  is  one  of  the  most  important  centres 
of  light  manufacture  in  the  world.  This  industry  resulted 
very  largely  from  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  War  of 
1812  and  its  consequent  non-intercourse  acts. 

The  interruption  of  foreign  commerce  not  only  cut  off 
the  importation  of  manufactured  commodities,  but  also 
made  idle  the  capital  employed.  Manufacturing  enter- 
prises started  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  but 
they  prospered  in  this  region  for  three  reasons— an  abun- 
dance of  power,  plenty  of  capital,  and  business  experience. 
Steam-power  is  largely  supplanting  water-power  in  the 
manufacturing  enterprises,  and  in  many  instances  the  es- 
tablishments have  been  moved  to  tide-water  in  order  to 
get  their  coal  at  the  lowest  rates  of  transportation. 

Chief  among  the  manufactures  are  cotton  textiles,  the 
yearly  output  of  which  is  about  three  hundred  million 
dollars.  About  nine-tenths  of  the  cotton  goods  made  are 
consumed  at  home.  Of  the  remainder,  China  purchases  one- 
half,  Great  Britain  and  Canada  take  one-fourth,  the  South 

219 


220  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

American  and  Central  American  states  purchase  most  of  the 
remaining  output.  The  great  improvement  of  spinning  and 
weaving  machinery  has  enabled  the  cotton  manufacturer 
to  export  his  wares  to  about  every  country  in  the  world. 

Boots,  shoes,  and  other  leather  goods  are  also  important 
manufactures.  The  invention  of  improved  machinery  for 
making  shoes  has  revolutionized  the  industry  to  the  extent 
that  a  pair  of  stylish  shoes  may  be  purchased  anywhere 
in  the  United  States  for  about  half  the  price  charged  in 
1880.  Another  result  is  the  enormous  importation  of 
hides  from  South  American  countries  and  Mexico. 

The  New  England  plateau  is  also  the  centre  of  a  large 
number  of  manufactures  that  require  a  high  degree  of 
mechanical  skill  and  intellectual  training,  such  as  small 
fire-arms,  machinery,  watches  ami  clocks,  jewelry,  machine- 
tools,  etc.  The  location  of  such  industries  depends  but 
little  upon  climate,  topography,  or  the  cost  of  transporta- 
tion ;  it  is  wholly  a  question  of  an  educated  and  trained 
people.  This  region  is  likely  to  lose  a  considerable  part 
of  its  manufactures  of  cotton  textiles,  inasmuch  as  the  in- 
dustry is  gradually  moving  to  the  cotton-growing  region. 
The  manufactures  requiring  training  and  skill,  however,  are 
likely  to  remain  in  the  region  where  they  have  grown  up. 

Laivrence,  Loivell,  Manchester,  and  Nashua — all  on  the 
Merrimac  Eiver;  Leiviston,  Waterville,  Augusta,  Woon- 
sockef,  and  Adams — each  situated  at  falls  or  rapids — are 
great  centres  of  cotton  manufacture.  Fall  Eiver  has  an 
abundance  of  water-power,  and  at  the  same  time  is  situ- 
ated on  tide-water.  Having  the  advantage  of  good  power 
and  cheap  transportation,  it  has  probably  the  greatest  out- 
put of  cotton  textiles  of  any  city  in  the  world.  Textile 
establishments  have  also  grown  up  in  the  cities  and  towns 
of  the  Mohawk  Valley,  being  attracted  by  the  excellent 
facilities  for  transportation  and  also  by  the  available  water- 


UNITED   STATES— THE   NEW   ENGLAND   PLATEAU       221 

power.  Lynn,  Brockton,  Haverhill,  Marlboro,  and  Worcester 
are  centres  of  boot  and  shoe  manufacture ;  they  turn  out 
about  two-thirds  of  the  product  of  the  United  States. 

Bridgeport  and  New  Haven  have  very  large  plants  for 
the  manufacture  of  fire-arms  and  fixed  ammunition  ;  Water- 
bury  and  Ansonia  for  watches,  clocks,  and  brass  goods ; 
Meriden  for  silverware,  and  Waltham  for  watches.  Worces- 
ter, Hartford,  North  Adams,  Fitchburg,  and  Providence 
have  each  a  great  variety  of  manufactures.  The  foreign 
commerce  of  these  manufacturing  centres  is  carried  on 
mainly  through  Boston.  Neiv  Haven,  Neiv  Bedford,  Provi- 
dence, Salem,  Gloucester,  and  New  London  control  each  a 
very  large  local  commerce. 

South  of  New  York  Bay  the  Atlantic  coast-plain  attains 
an  average  width  of  nearly  twro  hundred  miles.  The  pine 
forests  of  this  plain  yield  lumber,  tar,  pitch,  and  turpen- 
tine. The  productive  lands  are  valuable  chiefly  for  their 
output  of  dairy  stuffs,  fruit,  and  "garden  truck,"  which 
find  a  ready  market  in  the  larger  cities.  In  order  to  en- 
courage this  industry,  the  railways  make  special  rates  for 
dairy  products,  fruit,  and  vegetables,  and  afford  quick 
transit  for  such  freight 

Manufacturing  industries  are  rapidly  taking  shape  in 
this  part  of  the  United  States.  Along  the  line  where  the 
coast-plain  proper  joins  the  foot-hills  of  the  Appalachian 
ranges,  the  rivers  reach  the  lower  levels  by  rapids  or  falls. 
The  estuaries  into  which  they  flow  are  usually  navigable 
for  river-craft.  The  manufacturer  thus  has  the  double 
advantage  of  water-power  and  low  transportation.  The 
opening  of  the  southern  Appalachian  coal-mines  has 
also  greatly  encouraged  manufacture  in  this  region.  Rich- 
mond, Columbia,  Milled,geville,  Augusta,  and  Columbus  are 
thus  situated.  Their  manufactures  are  very  largely  con- 
nected with  the  cotton-crop. 


222  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  domestic  commerce  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the 
United  States  is  probably  larger  than  that  of  any  other 
similar  region  in  the  world.  It  is  considerably  larger 
than  the  "  round-  the-island "  trade  of  Great  Britain. 
Much  of  this  trade  is  carried  by  steam-vessels,  but  the 
three-masted  schooner  is  everywhere  in  evidence,  and 
these  craft  carry  a  very  large  part  of  the  coal  that  is 
moved  by  water.  This  trade  is  restricted  to  vessels  fly- 
ing the  American  flag. 

The  Appalachian  Region. — The  middle  and  southern 
Appalachian  region  has  become  the  most  important  centre 
of  iron  and  steel  manufacture  in  the  world.  This  great 
development  has  resulted  from  several  causes,  the  chief 
being  the  existence  of  coal  and  unlimited  quantities  of  iron 
ore  on  the  one  hand,  and  unusual  facilities  for  cheap  trans- 
portation on  the  other.  There  are  practically  three  areas 
of  steel  manufacture — one  along  the  Ohio  River  and  its 
tributaries  in  western  Pennsylvania  ;  another  is  situated 
along  the  south  shores  of  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Michigan  ; 
the  third  includes  the  Birmingham  district  in  the  southern 
Appalachians. 

The  steel-making  plants  of  the  Ohio  River  are  located 
with  reference  to  the  transportation  of  their  products,  and 
therefore  are  built  usually  alongside  the  river.  The  coal 
or  coke  is  commonly  shipped  in  barges  of  light  draught ; 
the  manufactured  products  are  carried  by  rail.  The  greater 
part  of  the  ore  is  brought  from  the  Lake  Superior  region. 
It  is  shipped  at  a  very  small  cost  from  the  ore  quarries  to 
the  lake-shore,  and  by  rail  from  the  lake-shore  to  the  manu- 
facturing plant.  In  order  to  avoid  heavy  grades  the  ore 
railways  are  also  built  along  the  river- valleys. 

Some  of  the  various  steel-making  plants  are  equipped 
for  the  manufacture  of  building  or  "  structural "  steel, 
others  for  rails  and  railway  equipments,  still  others  for  tin- 


224  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

plate,  or  for  wire,  or  for  tool  steel.  In  a  few  mills  armor- 
plate  and  ordinary  plate  for  steel  vessels  form  the  exclu- 
sive product.  The  diversity  of  the  product  has  led  to  the 
organization  of  great  corporations,  each  of  which  controls 
half-a-dozen  or  more  plants,  the  transportation  lines 
necessary  to  carry  the  product,  the  ore  quarries,  and  the 
fuel-mines. 

The  wonderful  development  of  the  steel  industry  in  the 
United  States  is  due  to  the  use  of  labor-saving  machinery, 
and  to  the  superb  organization.  The  wages  paid  for  labor 
are  higher  than  those  paid  in  European  steel-making 
centres;  the  cost  of  living  is  not  materially  greater.  The 
price  of  steel  rails,  which  in  1880  was  forty-eight  dollars 
per  ton,  in  1900  was  about  twenty  dollars  per  ton. 

Pittsburg,  together  with  Homestead,  Carnegie,  McKees- 
port,  Duquesne,  and  Braddock,  is  the  chief  steel-making 
centre  of  the  Ohio  Eiver  Valley.  There  are  also  large 
plants  at  New  Castle,  Sharon,  Scr anion,  Johnstoivn,  Bellaire, 
Youngstown,  Mingo  Junction,  and  Wheeling.  The  steel- 
plant  and  rolling-mills  at  South  Bethlehem  are  designed 
especially  for  the  manufacture  of  the  heavy  ordnance  used 
in  the  army  and  navy.  Nearly  all  the  cities  and  towns  of 
Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia,  and  eastern  Ohio  carry  on 
manufacturing  enterprises  that  depend  on  coal  mining  and 
steel  manufacture.  The  great  and  diversified  manufactures 
of  Philadelphia  are  due  to  its  fortunate  situation  at  tide- 
water, near  the  coal-mines.  Cheap  fuel  and  water  trans- 
portation have  made  it  one  of  the  great  industrial  centres 
of  the  world. 

The  anthracite  coal  of  this  region  is  used  wholly  for  fuel 
and  steam-making;  it  is  shipped  partly  by  water  from 
Philadelphia,  but  mainly  in  specially  constructed  cars  to 
the  various  points  of  consumption.  The  soft  coal  is  used 
also  for  fuel  and  steam-making,  but  a  large  part  of  the 


UNITED   STATES — THE  NEW  ENGLAND    PLATEAU       225 

product  is  converted  into  coke  and  used  in  the  steel- 
plants. 

The  petroleum  of  this  region  is  a  leading  export  of  the 
country,  the  states  of  western  Europe  being  the  chief  pur- 
chasers. Of  agricultural  products,  hay,  dairy  products, 
and  tobacco  are  the  only  ones  of  importance.  Natural 
gas  is  used  both  as  a  fuel  and  in  manufactures. 

The  lake-shore  centre  of  steel  manufacture  depends 
largely  on  the  low  cost  of  transporting  the  iron  ore,  which 
in  part  is  offset  by  the  increased  cost  of  coal.  The  low 
cost  of  shipping  the  manufactured  product  over  nearly 
level  trunk  lines  is  a  very  substantial  gain.  South  Chicago, 
Toledo,  Sandusky,  Lorain,  Cleveland,  Ashtabula,  Conneaid, 
Erie,  and  Buffalo  are  centres  of  steel  manufacture  or  ore 
shipment,  because  they  are  situated  on  this  great  trade- 
route  or  line  of  least  resistance. 

The  coal-mines  and  iron-making  plants  of  the  southern 
Appalachians  have  a  considerable  area.  The  chief  manu- 
facturing centres  are  Birmingham,  Bichmond,  Boanoke,  and 
Chattanooga.  A  considerable  part  of  the  Virginia  ores  find 
their  way  to  the  Ohio  River  steel-mills.  Open-hearth  steel 
is  an  important  manufacture  in  Birmingham.  A  large 
part  of  the  ores  smelted  in  the  southern  Appalachian  re- 
gion are  made  into  foundry  iron. 

QUESTIONS    FOR    DISCUSSION 

What  are  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of  manu- 
facturing cotton  textiles  in  the  New  England  States? 

Why  have  the  mining  of  ore  and  the  manufacture  of  steel  be- 
come generally  unprofitable  in  the  New  England  States  ? 

What  causes  have  brought  about  the  lowering  of  the  prices  of 
cotton  textiles  during  the  past  fifty  years  ?— of  shoes  ? 

What  makes  the  manufacture  of  artificial  ice  a  precarious 
business  north  of  the  latitude  of  Philadelphia? 


226  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

What  are  the  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  arising  from 
the  location  of  a  manufacturing  industry  at  a  seaport  ? 

What  is  the  design  of  a  protective  tariff  ?  What  are  its  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  ? 

Why  are  most  of  the  great  steel-making  plants  so  remote  from 
the  mines  of  iron  ore  used  in  making  steel  ? 

FOR  COLLATERAL   READING 

Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United  States — Chapters  III-V. 
Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States. 
Outlines  of  Political  Science— Chapters  VIII-X. 


CHAPTEE  XIX 

THE    UNITED   STATES— THE    BASIN   OF  THE   GREAT 
LAKES  AND   THE   MISSISSIPPI    VALLEY 

The  principal  agricultural  region  of  the  United  States 
extends  from  the  Appalachian  ranges  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. A  certain  amount  of  bread-stuffs,  meat,  and  dairy 
products  are  grown  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  country  for 
local  use,  but  the  grain,  meat,  and  cotton  of  this  region 
are  designed  for  export,  and  are  therefore  factors  in  the 
world's  commerce.  The  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  connects 
the  Mississippi  Valley  with  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

The  Basin  of  the  Great  Lakes. — This  region  in- 
cludes not  only  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  area  drained  by 
the  streams  flowing  into  them,  but  also  a  considerable  region 
surrounding  that  commercially  is  tributary  to  the  traffic 
passing  over  the  lakes.  This  basin  itself  is  a  part  of  a 
trade-route  destined  very  shortly  to  become  one  of  the 
greatest  highways  of  traffic  in  the  world. 

The  lakes  afford  a  navigable  waterway  which,  measured 
due  east  and  west,  aggregates  nearly  six  hundred  miles. 
This  route  is  interrupted  at  Niagara  Falls  and  at  St.  Mary's 
Falls,  between  Lake  Superior  and  Lake  Huron.  On  the 
Canadian  side,  Welland  Canal,  Lake  Ontario,  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  connect  Lake  Erie  with  tide-water.  In  the 
United  States  the  Erie  Canal  connects  the  lake  with  the 
Hudson  River  and  New  York  Bay. 

From  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  railway  routes  of  mini- 
mum grades — the  Great  Northern  and  the  Northern  Pa- 
cific * — cross  the  continent  toPuget  Sound,  the  best  harbor 

*  These  roads  are  financed  by  the  Northern  Securities  Company  and  form 
a  link  in  the  Hill-Morgan  lines.     Their  intercontinental  traffic  is  large. 

227 


228 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


approach  to  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  American  continent. 
The  harbors  of  Puget  Sound,  moreover,  are  materially 
nearer  the  great  Asian  ports  than  any  other  port  of  the 
United  States.  The  level  margins  of  these  lakes  are  road- 
beds for  many  miles  of  railway  track;  in  many  instances 
the  railways  are  built  on  the  tops  of  terraces  that  once 
were  shores  of  the  lakes. 

Duluth,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  became  commer- 
cially important  when  the  St.  Mary's  Falls  Canal  was  com- 
pleted.   Much  of  the  tremendous  tonnage  of  freight  passing 

through  the  canal  is  assembled 

at   this   place.     The    freight 

shipped  consists  mainly  of  farm 

products  collected  from  an  area 

reaching    as    far   west   as    the 

Kocky   Mountains.       There   is 

also   a   considerable   shipment 

of  iron  ores  obtained  near  by. 

Buffalo,  at   the  lower   end   of 

Lake  Erie,  owes  its  activity  to 

the  trade  in  lumber,  grain,  and 

other  farm  products  that  come  from  Western  lake-ports. 

It  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  the  lake-commerce  and  the 

western  terminus  of  the  Erie  Canal. 

Chicago,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Michigan,  has  a  very  heavy 
lake-trade.  The  mouth  of  Chicago  River,  the  natural  har- 
bor of  the  city,  has  been  improved  by  a  system  of  basins 
and  breakwaters.  The  river  itself  has  been  converted  into 
a  ship  and  drainage  canal  that  is  connected  with  the  Illi- 
nois and  Mississippi  Rivers.  It  is  now  an  outlet  instead 
of  a  feeder  to  the  lake,  and  the  city  built  about  old  Fort 
Dearborn  has  become  the  greatest  railway  centre  in  the 
world. 

Milwaukee  has  a  situation  in  many  ways  resembling  that 


230  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

of  Chicago,  its  harbor  being  the  mouth  of  Milwaukee  Eiver. 
Like  Chicago,  it  owes  its  importance  to  its  lake-trade.  De- 
troit (with  Windsor ,  Out.)  owes  its  growth  partly  to  its  stra- 
tegic position  on  the  strait  connecting  Lake  Huron  and 
Lake  Erie,  and  partly  for  its  position  between  the  lakes. 
It  is  an  important  collecting  and  distributing  point  for  lake- 
freights,  and  the  chief  centre  of  commerce  with  Canada. 
Several  east-and-west  trunk  lines  and  local  lines  of  railway 
have  freight  terminals  in  the  city ;  it  is  also  the  centre  of 
the  most  complete  system  of  internrban  electric  railways  in 
the  world.  Port  Huron  (with  Sarnia,  Ont.)  has  a  geographic 
position  similar  to  that  of  Detroit,  and  is  also  an  important 
lake-port.  The  St.  Clair  River  is  tunnelled  at  this  point. 
Cleveland,  Toledo,  Sandusky,  and  Erie  contribute  very 
largely  to  the  lake-trade.  Grand  Rapids  is  the  business 
centre  of  furniture  manufacture  of  the  United  States. 

The  great  iron-ore  ranges  about  Lake  Superior  have  had 
much  to  do  with  the  growth  of  the  local  lake-trade.  This 
has  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  large  number  of 
shipping- ports  near  the  head  of  the  lakes,  and  also  a  num- 
ber of  receiving  ports  on  the  south  shores  of  Lake  Erie 
and  Lake  Michigan.  Some  of  the  latter  have  become  also 
great  manufacturing  centres  of  structural  iron  and  steel. 

Various  centres  of  industry  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  Great  Lakes  are  contributors  to  their  trade.  Thus, 
on  account  of  the  low  rate  for  grain  between  Chicago  and 
Neiv  York  City — about  5  J  cents  per  bushel — there  are  yearly 
very  heavy  shipments  of  the  grain  designed  for  Liverpool. 
St.  Paid  and  Minneapolis  are  also  collecting  and  distributing 
centres  of  lake-freights.  A  considerable  part  of  the  busi- 
ness of  the  lake-region  is  carried  on  by  the  Canadians,  who 
have  improved  their  resources  for  production  and  trans- 
portation to  the  utmost. 

The    Northern    Mississippi  Valley   Region. — This 


232  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

region  extends  from  the  Appalachian  ranges  to  the  western 
limit  of  wheat  and  cotton  growing.  On  the  south  it  is 
limited  by  the  cotton-growing  region.  Its  boundaries  are 
therefore  climatic  and  commercial. 

The  surface  is  level ;  there  is  a  rich,  deep  soil  and  an  abun- 
dant rainfall.  It  has  therefore  become  one  of  the  foremost 
regions  of  the  world  in  the  production  of  corn,  wheat, 
pork,  dairy-stuffs,  and  general  farm  produce.  The  evolu- 
tion of  farming  machinery  is  the  direct  result  of  topo- 
graphic conditions.  A  level,  fertile  region  naturally  invites 
grain-farming  on  a  large  scale.  This,  in  turn,  must  depend 
very  largely  on  the  ability  of  the  farmer  to  plant  and  har- 
vest his  crops  with  the  minimum  of  expense  and  time. 

Hand-work  in  harvesting  and  planting  has  almost  wholly 
given  way  to  machine-work.  Farming  carried  on  under 
such  conditions  requires  not  only  a  considerable  capital,  but 
close  business  management  as  well.  Some  of  the  results 
have  been  very  far-reaching.  The  machinery  and  other 
equipments  require  capital,  and  this  in  late  years  has  been 
borrowed  from  Eastern  capitalists.  The  prompt  business 
methods  of  the  money-lender  brought  about  no  little  friction, 
and  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  each  adjusted  him- 
self to  the  requirements  of  the  other. 

The  system  of  machine- farming  to  a  great  extent  has 
prevented  the  subdivision  of  farms.  As  a  rule,  quarter 
and  half  sections  represent  the  size  of  most  of  the  farms, 
but  tracts  varying  from  five  thousand  to  ten  thousand  acres 
are  by  no  means  uncommon.  The  chief  drawback  to  this 
method  in  the  case  of  wheat-farming,  however,  is  the  low 
yield  per  acre.  The  average  yield  per  acre  for  the  United 
States,  a  little  more  than  twelve  bushels,  is  scarcely  half 
the  average  yield  in  Europe.  Although  the  farmer  has 
done  much  to  reorganize  his  business  methods,  he  has  done 
but  little  to  maintain  the  productivity  of  his  land. 


234  COMMERCIAL   GEOGKAPHY 

The  cities  and  towns  of  this  region  are  mainly  receiving 
and  collecting  points  for  farm  produce.  Nearly  every 
village  is  equipped  with  elevators  and  grain-handling  ma- 
chinery ;  the  larger  towns,  as  a  rule,  have  stock-yards  and 
the  necessary  facilities  for  cattle  shipment;  the  large  cities 
are  usually  centres  of  meat-packing.  Most  of  the  meat- 
packing is  a  necessity  ;  for  although  cattle  maybe  shipped 
alive  and  beef  may  be  transported  in  refrigerator  ships 
and  cars,  pork  is  not  marketable  unless  pickled,  salted,  or 
smoked.  The  pork  thus  exported,  aggregating  about  six 
hundred  million  pounds  yearly,  must  be  prepared,  there- 
fore, somewhere  near  the  cornfields.  Manufacturing  enter- 
prises are  operated  on  a  very  large  scale,  but  in  the  main 
their  products  are  farm-machinery  and  the  commodities 
required  by  a  farming  population. 

Education  in  agriculture  is  provided  for  in  nearly  every 
State  in  the  Union.  The  agricultural  colleges  in  the  States 
composing  this  group  rank  among  the  best  in  the  world. 
In  addition  to  the  ordinary  courses  in  such  institutions, 
there  are  also  many  experiment  stations  for  the  study  of 
economic  plants,  cattle  diseases,  and  insect  pests. 

Chicago  is  the  largest  food-market  in  the  world.  The 
industries  of  the  city  are  almost  wholly  connected  with  the 
commerce  of  grain,  pork,  meat,  and  other  food-stuffs.  For 
the  transportation  of  these  commodities  about  thirty  great 
trunk  lines  enter  the  city  and  about  twelve  hundred  pas- 
senger trains  daily  arrive  and  depart  from  its  stations. 

The  freight  terminals  are  connected  by  transfer  and  belt 
lines,  which  receive  and  distribute  the  cars  passing  between 
the  eastern  and  the  western  roads.  More  than  five  hun- 
dred freight  trains,  aggregating  about  twenty  thousand 
cars,  arrive  and  depart  daily. 

St.  Louis  originally  derived  its  importance  as  a  river-port 
of  the  Mississippi,  having  been  the  connecting  commercial 


AUTOMOTIVK   POWER  IN    THE   INDUSTRIES   OF  THE   MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY 


236  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

link  between  the  upper  and  the  lower  river.  In  recent 
years  it  has  become  the  metropolis  of  the  southern  part  of 
the  food-producing  region.  In  addition  to  the  river-trade, 
still  largely  controlled  at  this  point,  it  is  the  focus  of  more 
than  twenty  trunk  Hues  of  railway.  Some  of  these,  like 
the  trunk  lines  of  Chicago,  handle  freight  exchanged  be- 
tween the  East  and  West ;  but  a  large  proportion  are  re- 
ceiving and  distributing  roads  for  Southern  freight. 

St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis  are  the  metropolis  of  the  upper 
Mississippi.  The  former  grew  from  a  trading-post  at  the 
head  of  navigation  ;  the  latter  gained  its  commercial  promi- 
nence from  the  water-power  at  the  falls  of  St.  Anthony. 
The  former  has  become  the  chief  railway  and  distributing 
centre  of  the  northern  Mississippi  Valley ;  the  latter  has 
the  greatest  flour-mills  in  the  world,  and  an  extensive 
lumber-trade.  Both  are  situated  on  the  trade-route  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Asian  ports,  and  distribute 
a  part  of  the  trade  that  comes  from  them. 

The  two  Kansas  Cities*  Omaha,  South  Omaha,  and 
Sioux  City  are  stock-markets  and  meat-packing  centres. 
The  first  two  named  are  collecting  and  distributing  points 
not  only  for  the  Mississippi  Yalley,  but  also  for  a  consid- 
erable share  of  the  Pacific  Coast  trade.  Kansas  City  is 
also  a  transfer  station  for  the  cotton  destined  for  China. 
From  this  place  it  is  sent  by  way  of  Billings  to  Seattle,  and 
thence  shipped  to  China. 

Cincinnati  is  the  metropolis  of  the  Ohio  Yalley.  Its  sit- 
uation on  a  bend  of  the  river  gives  most  excellent  landing- 
facilities  ;  the  easy  grade  from  the  bluff  to  the  bottom-lands 
along  the  flood -plain  of  Mill  Creek  makes  it  accessible  to 
the  railways  that  enter  the  city.  On  account  of  low  rates 
of  transportation  by  river-barges,  about  three  million  tons 
of  coal  and  one  million  tons  of  pig-iron  and  steel  billets 

*  Their  dividing  line  is  the  centre  of  a  street. 


UNITED   STATES— BASIN   OF   THE   GREAT   LAKES      237 

are  floated  to  the  city  to  be  manufactured  into  other  steel 
products.  Indianapolis  is  a  great  railway  centre,  where 
much  of  the  freight  passing  between  Chicago,  Louisville, 
Cincinnati,  and  Pittsburg  is  exchanged.  Columbus  (0.)  is 
similarly  situated  as  a  railway  and  farming  centre. 

Louisville  is  a  market  of  the  tobacco  region,  and  has 
probably  a  larger  business  in  this  industry  than  any  other 
city  in  the  world.  Davenport,  Rock  Island,  and  Moline  form 
a  single  commercial   centre,  the   last-named   having  the 


Area  of  Beef  Cattle  thus? 
Area  of  Dairy  Products  thus 
Beef  Packing  Centers  thus":  • 

Area  of  Mexico  sending  Cattle  to  U.S. 


largest  establishment  for  the  manufacture  of  ploughs  in  the 
world.  Dubuque,  Burlington,  Quincy,  and  Muscatine  are 
river-ports,  all  having  a  considerable  trade  in  the  lumber 
that  is  carried  down  the  river. 

The  Southern  Mississippi  Valley  and  Gulf  Coast. 
— This  region  receives  a  generous  warmth  and  rainfall. 
Cotton  is  its  staple  product,  and  nearly  all  the  industries 
are  connected  with  the  growth,  shipment,  and  manufacture 
of  the  crop  and  its  side  products.  The  cotton,  raw  or 
manufactured,  is  sold  in  about  every  country  in  the  world. 


238  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  commercial  part  of  handling  the  cotton- crop  begins 
within  a  very  few  weeks  from  the  time  of  the  first  picking. 
The  baled  cotton  is  hauled  by  team  from  the  plantation  to 
the  nearest  market-town,  an  item  sometimes  greater  than 
the  entire  freightage  from  the  nearest  seaport  to  Liverpool. 

The  season  for  export  lasts  from  September  until  the 
middle  of  January,  during  which  time  brokers  are  visiting 
the  smaller  markets  in  order  to  buy  it  on  commission.  It 
is  then  shipped  by  rail  or  by  river  to  the  nearest  general 
market,  where  it  is  sold  to  the  foreign  buyers  and  domestic 
manufacturers. 

Neio  Orleans,  the  metropolis  of  the  South,  has  usually  the 
heaviest  export  of  cotton,  amounting  to  about  one  billion 
pounds  each  year.  Much  of  this  is  received  by  water  from 
the  various  river-ports.  The  city  is  not  only  a  river-port, 
but  an  important  seaport  as  well,  controlling  a  large  part 
of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  Gulf.  Several  trunk  lines  of 
railway  enter  the  city,  which  is  a  receiving  and  distributing 
depot  for  both  Atlantic  and  Pacific  freights.  A  consider- 
able part  of  the  former  are  sent  by  ocean  steamships  from 
New  York.  An  elaborate  system  of  sewerage,  welhpaved 
streets,  and  a  good  water-supply — all  recently  put  into 
operation — have  made  the  city  one  of  the  most  attractive 
in  the  United  States. 

Galveston  is  destined  to  become  a  leading  port  for  cot- 
ton export.  It  has  the  advantage  of  a  fine  harbor  on  the 
seaboard,  and  the  disadvantage  of  a  location  so  low  that 
very  heavy  south  winds  flood  the  streets  Avith  water  from 
the  Gulf.  The  growth  of  the  export  trade  is  due  chiefly  to 
the  increasing  crop  of  Texas.  Shipments  from  Galveston 
begin  in  September,  the  Texas  crop  being  the  first  to 
mature.  Savannah  and  New  York  rank  next  in  their  ex- 
ports. Pensaeola  and  Brunswick  are  also  important  points 
of  export.     Memphis,   VieJcsburg,  SIrreveport,  Houston,  and 


UNITED   STATES — BASIN   OF  THE   GREAT   LAKES       239 

Montgomery  are  important  collecting  stations  for  the 
cotton. 

About  one-third  of  the  crop  is  retained  for  manufacture 
in  the  United  States;  one-third  is  purchased  by  Great 
Britain,  one-sixth  by  Germany,  and  most  of  the  remainder 
by  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Japan.  Of  the  manufactured 
cotton  goods,  the  Chinese  are  the  heaviest  buyers,  taking 
about  half  the  entire  export.  Most  of  the  Chinese  pur- 
chase is  landed  at  Shanghai. 

In  the  main,  the  manufactures  of  this  region  closely  con- 
cern the  cotton  industry.  The  increase  in  the  manufacture 
of  textile  goods  has  been  very  great,  and  a  large  part  of  the 
cotton  now  manufactured  in  the  New  England  States  and 
abroad,  in  time  will  be  made  in  the  cities  and  towns  of  this 
section.  In  addition  to  the  textile  goods,  cottonseed-oil 
is  an  important  product.  A  part  of  this  is  used  in  the 
mechanical  arts,  but  the  refined  oil  is  used  mainly  for 
domestic  purposes.  A  considerable  part  of  the  latter  is 
used  to  adulterate  olive-oil,  and  in  some  instances  is 
substituted  for  it.  The  refuse  of  the  seed  is  made  into 
fertilizer. 

Atlanta  is  one  of  the  foremost  cities  in  the  South  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  textiles  and  products.  Commercially 
its  situation  resembles  that  of  Indianapolis  ;  it  is  a  focal 
point  of  the  chief  trunk  lines  of  railway  in  the  South,  and 
has  the  principal  railway  clearing-house.  Like  NeAV  Or- 
leans, it  is  an  educational  centre  and  one  of  the  foremost 
in  the  South.  Macon,  Dallas,  Fort  Worth,  and  San  Antonio 
are  growing  commercial  centres. 

The  manufacture  of  cane-sugar  has  been  an  industry  of 
Louisiana  for  more  than  a  century.  Since  the  advent  of 
beet-sugar,  however,  it  has  been  a  somewhat  precarious 
venture,  and  has  depended  for  existence  very  largely  upon 
tariff  protection  and  bounties  paid  to  the  American  sugar- 


240  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

makers.  Tobacco  manufacture  centres  at  Tampa  and  Key 
West.     Cuban  leaf  is  there  converted  into  cigars. 

Fruit  culture  is  a  great  industry.  Millions  of  melons 
and  great  quantities  of  pineapples,  oranges,  and  small  fruit 
form  the  early  crop  that  is  shipped  North.  The  orange 
groves  are  mainly  in  Florida.  The  crop  is  exhausted  about 
the  time  that  California  oranges  are  shipped  East.  A  great 
deal  of  tropical  fruit  is  brought  from  Mexican,  Central 
American,  and  South  American  ports.  This  trade  is  con- 
trolled mainly  at  Mobile,  which  is  also  a  lumber-market. 

The  Arid  Plains  and  the  Grazing  Region.— This 
region  includes  the  high  plains  approximately  west  of  the 
2,000 -foot  contour  of  level,  together  with  a  part  of  the 
plateaus  of  the  western  highland  region.  It  is  essentially 
one  of  grazing.  Formerly  there  was  an  attempt  to  make 
wheat-growing  the  chief  industry,  but  on  account  of  the 
limited  rainfall  not  more  than  three  crops  out  of  five 
reached  maturity. 

The  earlier  cattle-growing  was  carried  on  in  a  somewhat 
primitive  manner ;  the  cattle  herded  on  open  lands,  wan- 
dering from  one  range  to  another,  wherever  the  grazing 
might  be  good.  The  ownership  of  the  cattle  was  deter- 
mined by  the  brand  the  animal  bore,*  and  the  herds  were 
"  rounded  up  "  twice  a  year  to  be  sorted  ;  at  the  round-up 
the  "  mavericks,"  or  unmarked  calves  and  yearlings,  were 
branded.  In  time  the  ranges  became  greatly  overstocked  ; 
the  winter  losses  by  starvation  were  so  heavy  that  a  better 
system  became  imperative.  "  Rustling,"  or  cattle-stealing, 
also  became  a  factor  in  improving  the  methods  of  cattle- 
ranching.     The  cautious  rustler  would  purchase  a  few  head 

*The  brand  consisted  of  any  specific  device,  such  as  an  initial,  a 
monogram,  or  a  conventional  form  that  might  he  easily  recognized.  The 
device  was  registered  and  imprinted  with  a  red-hot  iron  on  the  flank  of 
the  animal.  Ear-marks,  such  as  notches  or  similar  devices,  also  indicated 
ownership. 


242 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


of    cattle  and    add    to   the   number  by   capturing    stray 
mavericks. 

Both  the  legitimate  graziers  and  the  rustlers  at  first  were 
bitterly  opposed  to  fencing  the  land.  In  time,  however, 
the  grazier  was  compelled  to  do  this,  and  also  to  grow 
alfalfa  for  winter  foddering.  The  great  open  ranges  have 
therefore  been  broken  up  and  fenced  wholly  or  in  part. 
The  fencing,  moreover,  has  kept  a  dozen  or  more  of  the 


OPEN  GRAZING  RANGES>r  \ 


WESTERN  HIGHLANDS. 

SCALE   OF   MILES. 


vr 


largest  wire-mills  in  the  world  turning  out  a  product  that 
is  at  once  shipped  West.  As  a  rule,  the  top  wire  is  set 
on  insulators  and  used  for  telephone  connection.*     This 


*  In  many  cases  Government  land,  not  owned  by  the  rancher,  has  been 
fenced  in.  No  objection  was  made,  however,  until  the  sheep-grazier 
came.  He  demanded  the  removal  of  the  fences,  claiming  that  he  had  an 
equal  right  to  graze  his  herds  on  public  lands.  But  inasmuch  as  a  range 
once  grazed  by  sheep  is  ruined  for  cattle-growing,  the  quarrel  between  the 
grazier  and  the  rustler  has  become  one  in  which  both  the  grazier  and  the 
rustler  turned  upon  the  sheep-owner. 


244  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

method  of  cattle-growing  lias  improved  the  business  in 
every  way.  The  cattle  are  better  kept ;  the  loss  by  winter 
killing  is  very  small ;  the  "  long-horn  "  cattle  have  given 
place  to  the  best  breeds  of  "meaters,"  which  are  heavier, 
and  mature  more  quickly. 

The  success  of  stock-growing  in  this  region  is  largely 
a  question  of  climate.  The  sparse  rainfall  permits  the 
growth  of  several  species  of  grass  that  retain  nutrition  and 
vitality  after  turning  brown  under  the  fierce  summer  heat. 
Ordinary  turf-grass  will  not  live  in  this  region,  nor  will  it 
retain  its  nutrition  after  turning  brown  if  rain  falls  upon 
it.  The  native  grass  is  not  materially  affected  by  a  shower 
or  two ;  it  is  fairly  good  fodder  even  when  buried  under  the 
winter's  snow.  The  existence  of  this  industry,  therefore, 
turns  on  a  very  delicate  climatic  balance. 

Of  the  beef  grown  in  the  United  States  the  export  prod- 
uct is  derived  mainly  from  this  region.  Nearly  four  hun- 
dred thousand  animals  are  shipped  alive;  about  three 
hundred  million  pounds  of  fresh  beef  are  shipped  to  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  in  refrigerator-cars  and  then  transferred 
to  refrigerator-steamships.  Two-thirds  of  the  cattle  and 
fresh  beef  exported  are  shipped  from  New  York  and  Boston. 

Upward  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  million  pounds  of 
canned  and  pickled  beef  are  also  exported.  All  but  a  very 
small  part  of  this  product  is  consumed  in  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Germany.  The  cattle  are  collected  for  trans- 
portation at  various  stations  and  sidings  along  the  rail- 
ways that  traverse  this  region.  Cheyenne  is  one  of  the 
largest  cattle-markets  in  the  world. 

Wool  has  become  a  very  valuable  product,  and  the 
sheep  grown  in  this  region  number  about  one-half  the 
total  in  the  United  States.  The  growing  of  macaroni- 
wheat  is  extending  to  lands  that  fail  to  produce  crops  of 
ordinary  wheat. 


UNITED   STATES — BASIN   OF  THE   GREAT   LAKES       245 
QUESTIONS   FOR  DISCUSSION 

In  what  ways  does  the  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  facilitate  the 
commerce  of  the  United  States  ? 

How  has  the  topography  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  affected  the 
evolution  of  farming-machinery? 

Why  are  shippers  willing  in  many  cases  to  pay  an  all-rail  rate 
on  wheat  sent  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  nearly  three  times  as 
great  as  the  lake  and  canal  rates  ? 

The  acre-product  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  is  about  twelve 
bushels  ;  in  western  Europe  it  varies  from  twenty-five  to  more 
than  forty  bushels  ;  to  what  is  the  difference  due  ? 

What  is  meant  by  sea-island  cotton  ? — for  what  reasons  is  cot- 
ton imported  from  Egypt  and  Peru  into  the  United  States? 

In  what  manner  is  cotton  used  in  the  manufacture  of  pneumatic 
tires,  and  why  is  it  thus  used? 

What  are  refrigerator-cars  ? — refrigerator-steamships  ?  Name 
some  of  the  regulations  required  in  shipping  cattle. 

Why  have  American  meats  been  debarred  at  times  from  Eu- 
ropean markets? 

Find  the  value  of  cotton  and  meat  exported  to  the  following- 
named  countries:  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Italy,  China. 

FOR   COLLATERAL   READING   AND   REFERENCE 

The  Wheat  Problem — pp.  191  et  seq. 
Statistical  Abstract. 


Wmm 


DIFFICULT   RAILROADING-LAS   ANIMAS 


CANON 


CHAPTER   XX 

THE   UNITED   STATES— THE   WESTERN   HIGHLANDS 
AND   TERRITORIAL   POSSESSIONS 

The  western  part  of  the  United  States  consists  of  a  suc- 
cession of  high  mountain-ranges  extending  nearly  north 
and  south.  The  two  highest  ranges,  each  about  two  miles 
high,  enclose  a  basin-shaped  plateau  about  one  mile  high. 
This  basin  is  commonly  called  the  "  plateau  region."  The 
rim  ranges  are  broken  in  a  few  places  by  passes  that  the 
transcontinental  railways  thread.  West  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  ranges  are  the  fertile  Pacific  coast  lowlands. 

The  Plateau  Region. — This  region  is  generally  arid, 
but  on  the  higher  plateaus  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  to 
produce  a  considerable  forestry  and  grazing.  The  general 
conditions  of  rainfall  and  topography  forbid  any  great  de- 
velopment of  agriculture.  Farming  is  confined  to  the  river- 
flood-plains,  the  parks,  and  the  old  lake  beds  and  margins. 

A  considerable  area,  estimated  at  more  than  two  mill- 
ion acres,  may  be  made  productive  by  irrigation,  and  the 
United  States  Government  is  undertaking  the  construction 
of  an  elaborate  and  extensive  system  of  reservoirs  for  the 
impounding  of  stream  and  storm  waters  now  running  to 
waste.  The  irrigated  lands  of  this  region,  when  their  prod- 
ucts are  accessible  to  markets,  are  very  valuable.  The 
river-bottom  lands  of  New  Mexico,  and  the  old  margins  of 
Great  Salt  Lake  in  Utah  are  examples.  They  produce 
abundantly,  and  a  single  acre  often  yields  as  much  as  four 
or  five  acres  in  regions  of  plentiful  rainfall. 

247 


248  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Not  much  of  the  crop  of  this  region,  the  fruit  and  wool 
excepted,  leaves  the  vicinity  in  which  it  is  grown,  on  ac- 
count of  the  expense  of  transportation.  In  the  matter  of 
the  transportation  of  their  commodities,  the  dwellers  of  the 
western  highland  are  doubly  handicapped.  The  build- 
ing of  railways  is  enormously  expensive,  and  in  a  region 
of  sparse  population  there  is  comparatively  little  local 
freight  to  be  hauled.  The  difficulties  of  developing  such 
a  region  from  a  commercial  stand- point,  therefore,  are  very 
great. 

Mining  is  the  chief  industry  of  this  section,  and  silver, 
gold,  and  copper  are  its  most  important  products.  Since 
the  discovery  of  precious  metals  in  the  United  States,  this 
region  has  produced  gold  and  silver  bullion  to  the  value  of 
about  four  billion  dollars.  This  sum  is  about  one-half  the 
value  of  the  railways  of  the  country,*  and  from  1865  to 
1880  a  large  part  of  the  capital  invested  in  railway  build- 
ing represents  the  gold  and  silver  of  these  mines.  In  the 
last  twenty  years  of  the  past  century  they  produced  an 
average  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  million 
dollars  per  year,  and  this  average  is  constantly  increasing. 

Coal-measures  extend  along  the  eastern  escarpment  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  these  are  destined  at  no  remote 
day  to  create  a  centre  of  steel  and  other  manufactures. 
Several  of  the  railways  operate  coal-mines  in  Colorado  and 
Wyoming  for  the  fuel  required.  A  limited  supply  of  steel 
is  also  made,  the  industry  being  protected  by  the  great  dis- 
tance from  the  Eastern  smelteries. 

Denver  is  the  chief  active  centre  of  finance  of  the  min- 
ing industry  in  the  western  highlands,  although  many  of 
the  great  enterprises  derive  the  capital  necessary  to  de- 
velop them  from  New  York  and  San  Francisco.  LeadviUe, 
Cripple  Creek,  Butte,  Helena,  and  Deadwood  are  regions  of 

*  It  is  one-third  of  their  capital  stock  plus  the  bonded  indebtedness. 


250  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

gold  and  silver  production.  Virginia  City  is  the  operating 
centre  of  the  famous  Comstock  mines.  At  Anaconda  is  the 
chief  copper-mine  of  this  region.  Salt  Lake  City  and  Og- 
den  are  the  centre  of  the  Mormon  agricultural  enterprises. 
Santa  Fe\  Las  Vegas,  and  Albuquerque  are  centres  of  agri- 
cultural interests  and  stock-growing. 

Spokane  and  Walla  Walla  are  commercial  centres  of  the 
plains  of  the  Columbia  River.  The  former  is  the  focal 
point  of  a  network  of  local  roads  that  collect  the  wheat  and 
other  farm  products  of  this  region ;  the  latter  is  the  col- 
lecting point  for  much  of  the  freight  sent  by  steamboats 
down  the  Columbia  River  from  Wallula.  Railway  trans- 
portation has  largely  superseded  river-navigation  for  all 
except  local  freights,  however.  Boise  City  is  the  financial 
centre  of  considerable  mining  interests. 

The  Pacific  Coast  Lowlands.— Climatically  this  region 
differs  from  the  rest  of  the  United  States  in  having  a  rainy 
and  a  dry  season — that  is,  the  rainfall  is  wholly  seasonal. 
In  the  northern  part  the  rainfall  is  sixty  inches  or  more, 
and  rain  may  be  expected  daily  from  the  middle  of  Octo- 
ber to  May.  In  central  California  the  precipitation  is 
about  half  as  much,  the  rainy  season  beginning  later  and 
ending  earlier.  In  southern  California  there  are  occa- 
sional showers  during  the  winter  months,  aggregating  ten 
or  twenty  inches. 

The  level  valley-lands  have  no  superior  for  wheat-farm- 
ing, and  in  but  one  or  two  places  is  the  rainfall  insufficient 
to  insure  a  good  crop.  In  the  San  Joaquin  and  southern 
valleys  of  California  the  harvest  begins  in  May,  in  the 
Sacramento  Valley  in  June,  and  in  the  "Willamette  and 
Sound  Valleys  of  Oregon  and  Washington  in  July.  The 
wheat  goes  mainly  to  Great  Britain  by  way  of  Cape  Horn. 
It  cannot  be  safely  shipped  in  bulk,  and  the  manufacture 
of  jute  grain-sacks  has  become  an  important  industry  in 


UNITED   STATES — THE   WESTERN  HIGHLANDS       251 

consequence.  The  yearly  wheat  product  of  this  region  is 
not  far  from  eighty  million  bushels. 

Fruit  is  a  valuable  product  of  the  foot-hills  of  the 
Sierras,  and  in  southern  California  oranges,  lemons,  and 
grapes  are  now  the  staple  crop.  In  some  cases  the  aver- 
age yield  per  acre  has  reached  a  value  of  five  hundred 
dollars.  Some  of  the  largest  vineyards  in  the  world  are  in 
this  region.  The  Zinfandel  claret  Avine  and  the  raisins  find 
a  market  as  far  east  as  London,  and  considerable  quantities 
are  sold  in  China  and  Japan.  The  navel  orange,  although 
not  native  to  California,  reaches  its  finest  development  in 
that  State.  A  large  part  of  the  fruit-crop  of  California  is 
handled  at  Minneapolis,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  New  York. 
It  is  transported  in  special  cars  attached  to  fast  trains. 

Wool  is  an  important  crop.  In  the  northern  part  the 
sheep  thrive  best  in  the  foot-hills.  The  valley  of  Umpqua 
River,  Ore.,  produces  nearly  seventeen  million  pounds  of 
wool  yearly,  the  staple  being  an  ordinary  variety.  Cali- 
fornia produces  nearly  as  much  of  the  finest  merino  staple. 
A  considerable  part  is  manufactured  in  the  mills  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  The  Mission  Mills  blankets  made  in  San 
Francisco  are  without  an  equal  elsewhere. 

The  discovery  of  gold  by  John  Marshall  in  1848  resulted 
in  a  tremendous  inflow  of  people  to  the  gold-fields  of  Cali- 
fornia. It  also  was  a  factor  in  the  acquisition  of  the  terri- 
tory composing  the  Pacific  coast  States.  The  first  mining 
consisted  merely  in  separating  the  metal  deposited  in  the 
bed-rock  of  streams  by  washing  away  the  lighter  material. 
In  time  the  quartz  ledges  which  had  produced  the  placer 
gold  became  the  chief  factor  in  gold  mining.  California  is 
still  one  of  the  leading  States  in  the  production  of  gold. 
Quicksilver  mining  is  an  important  feature  of  the  mining 
interests  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  the  mines  of  the  coast 
ranges  produce  about  half  the  world's  output. 


252  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Lumber  manufacture  is  an  important  industry.  Douglas 
spruce,  commonly  known  as  "  Oregon  pine,"  grows  pro- 
fusely on  the  western  slopes  of  the  high  ranges,  the  belt 
extending  nearly  to  the  Mexican  border.  It  makes  a 
most  excellent  building-lumber,  especially  for  bridge-tim- 
ber and  framework.  Masts  and  spars  of  this  material 
are  used  in  almost  every  maritime  country.  Sugar-pine 
is  less  common,  but  is  abundant.  It  is  largely  used  for 
interior  work.  Several  species  of  redwood  occur  in  central 
California,  confined  to  a  limited  area.  The  wood  is  fine- 
grained and  makes  a  most  beautiful  interior  finish. 

San  Francisco  is  the  metropolis  of  the  Pacific  coast  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  Santa  Fe  and 
Union  Pacific  railways,  and  the  centre  of  a  network  of 
local  roads.  Steamship  lines  connect  the  city  with  Panama, 
the  Hawaiian  Islands,  Japan,  and  Australian  ports  ;  coast 
steamships  reach  to  the  various  ports  of  Alaska,  Oregon, 
and  California.  It  is  also  the  financial  as  well  as  the  com- 
mercial centre  of  the  Pacific  coast.  Los  Angeles  is  the 
centre  of  the  fruit-growing  region  ;  its  port  is  San  Pedro. 
Stockton,  Port  Costa,  and  Sacramento,  all  on  navigable 
waters,  are  wheat-markets.  Portland  (Ore.)  is  the  metrop- 
olis of  the  basin  of  the  Columbia  and  Willamette  Rivers. 
Navigation  of  the  former  is  interrupted  by  falls  or  rapids 
at  Dalles  and  Cascades,  but  boats  ascend  as  far  as  Walhda. 
The  lower  Willamette  is  also  made  navigable  by  means 
of  a  canal  and  locks  at  Oregon  Falls. 

Puget  Sound  is  a  "  drowned  valley,"  with  an  abundance 
of  deep  water.  The  score  or  more  of  harbors  are  among 
the  best  in  the  world.  Seattle  and  Tacoma,  the  leading- 
ports,  are  terminals  of  great  transcontinental  railways, 
and  also  of  the  most  important  trade-route  across  the 
continent.  Lines  of  steamships  connect  Seattle  with 
Japan  and  China,  and  the  commerce  passing  through  this 


UNITED   STATES — THE   WESTERN   HIGHLANDS 


253 


3 


gateway  is  drawn  from  a  territory  that  extends  more 
than  half-way  around  the  world.  These  ports  are  destined 
to  become  the  chief  American  ports  in  the  Asian  trade. 

Alaska. — The  most  productive  industry  of  the  insular 
part  of  the  territory  is  the  fisheries.  For  many  years  the 
Pribilof  Islands  produced  practically  all  the  seal-pelts 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  seal-fur  garments.  So  many 
seals  were  killed,  however,  that  the  species  seemed  likely 
to  become  extinct,  and 
seal-catching  has  been 
forbidden  for  a  term  of 
years. 

The  discovery  of  gold 
along  the  Klondike 
River  and  in  the  beach- 
sands  of  Cape  Nome 
was  followed  by  the 
development  of  surface 
mines  that  produced  a 
large  a  in  ount  of  gold. 
For  the  better  transpor- 
tation of  products,  a  rail- 
way has  been  completed 
from  Skagivay  across 
White  Pass  to  White 
Horse,  the  head  of  navi- 
gation of  the  Yukon. 
About  twenty  steamboats  are  engaged  in  the  commerce  of 
the  river.  Skagway  and  Byea  are  collecting  points  for  the 
commerce  of  the  Klondike  mines.  Juneau  has  probably 
the  largest  quartz-mill  in  the  world. 

Porto  Rico. — Porto  Rico,  formerly  a  Spanish  colony, 
is  now  a  possession  of  the  United  States.  The  island  is 
about  the  size  of  Connecticut  and  has  a  population  some- 


FUGET  SOUND 


254  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

what  greater.  The  industries  are  almost  wholly  agri- 
cultural, and  nearly  the  whole  surface  is  under  cultivation. 
Sugar,  coffee,  and  tobacco  are  grown  for  export,  and  these 
constitute  the  chief  source  of  income.  The  coffee-crop,  about 
sixty  million  pounds  yearly,  is  the  most  valuable  prod- 
uct and  commands  a  high  price  on  account  of  its  superior 
quality.  It  is  sold  very  largely  to  European  coffee-mer- 
chants, and  is  marketed  as  a  "Mocha."  Exports  of  fruit  to 
the  United  States  are  increasing.  In  1900  the  exports  to 
United  States  markets,  mainly  sugar  and  cattle  products, 
were  about  six  million  dollars.  The  imports  from  the 
United  States  were  chiefly  of  cotton-prints  and  rice,  to  the 
amount  of  nearly  nine  million  dollars.  The  total  export  and 
import  trade  that  year  was  about  twenty  million  dollars. 

The  facilities  for  the  transportation  of  products  are  not 
good.  The  railway  lines  have  a  total  mileage  of  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles.  An  excellent  wagon-road,  built 
by  the  Spanish  Government  from  San  Juan  to  Ponce,  has 
been  supplemented  by  several  hundred  miles  of  roads  built 
under  the  direction  of  the  military  authorities.  San  Juan 
and  Ponce  are  the  leading  seaports  and  centres  of  trade. 

Hawaiian  Islands. — These  islands  were  discovered  by 
a  Spanish  sailor,  Gaetano,  in  1549,  and  again  visited  by 
Captain  Cook  in  1778.  Up  to  1893  they  formed  a  native 
kingdom.  In  1893  foreign  influence  was  sufficient  to  over- 
throw the  native  government,  and  in  1898  they  were  for- 
mally annexed  to  the  United  States  and  about  the  same 
time  organized  as  a  territory.  From  an  early  date  the 
geographic  position  of  the  islands  has  made  them  a  con- 
venient mid-ocean  post-station,  and  they  have  therefore 
become  a  most  important  commercial  centre. 

Of  the  various  islands  composing  the  group,  Hawaii, 
Maui,  Oahu,  Kaui,  Molokai,  Lanai,  and  Niihau  are  inhab- 
ited.    About  one-fifth  of  the  population  consists  of  native 


256  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Hawaii ans  ;  a  little  more  than  one-fifth  is  white  ;  the  re- 
mainder is  composed  of  Japanese,  Chinese,  and  Porto 
Ricans.  The  native  population  is  decreasing.  About 
ninety-five  per  cent,  of  the  property  is  owned  by  the  white 
people — Americans,  English,  and  Germans. 

The  volcanic  soils  are  the  very  best  sugar-lands,  and  a 
large  amount  of  capital  is  invested  in  this  industry.  The 
sugar-plantations  employ  more  than  forty  thousand  labor- 
ers, all  Japanese,  Chinese,  and  Porto  Ricans.  The  value 
of  the  sugar  export  is  nearly  twenty-five  million  dollars 
yearly;  that  of  fruit,  rice,  and  hides  is  about  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  Coffee  is  rapidly  be- 
coming a  leading  product.  The  bulk  of  the  imports  comes 
from  the  United  States,  and  consists  of  clothing,  cotton 
textiles,  lumber,  and  machinery. 

Honolulu,  on  the  island  of  Oahu,  is  the  capital  and  com- 
mercial centre,  and  foreign  steamships  and  sailing-craft  are 
scarcely  ever  absent  from  its  harbor.  Regular  steamship 
service  connects  this  port  with  San  Francisco,  Seattle,  Van- 
couver, B.  C,  and  the  principal  ports  of  China  and  Japan. 
It  is  connected  with  the  other  islands  by  a  system  of  wire- 
less telegraphy.  The  city  has  the  best  of  schools,  business 
organizations,  hotels,  and  streets. 

Pearl  Harbor  contains  a  large  area  of  water,  most  of 
which  is  deep  enough  for  the  largest  vessels  afloat.  It  is 
intended  to  deepen  the  entrance  and  establish  a  United 
States  naval  station  at  this  place.  The  village  of  Hilo  is 
the  chief  port  of  the  island  of  Hawaii. 

The  Philippine  Islands  are  an  archipelago  of  about 
two  thousand  islands,  the  two  largest  of  which,  Luzon  and 
Mindanao,  are  each  nearly  the  size  of  New  York  State. 
Luzon  is  by  far  the  most  important. 

After  their  cession  to  the  United  States  (December  10, 
1898),  they  were  held  under  military  control,  but  this  has 


UNITED   STATES — THE  WESTERN   HIGHLANDS      257 

given  place  to  local  self-government  as  rapidly  as  the 
circumstances  permitted.  A  general  school  system  has 
been  established  and  is  extended  wherever  practicable.  In 
a  considerable  number  of  the  islands  civil  organization 
is  still  impossible. 

The  following  are  the  principal  islands  and  their  mineral 
resources : 


Name 

Chief  Cities  and 

Ports 

Mineral  Resources 

Luzon 

Manila,  Lipa,  Batangas 

Zamboanga 

Catbalogan 

Bacolor 

Iloilo 

Tacloban 

Calapaii 

Cebu 

Coal,  gold,  copper 
Coal,  gold,  copper 
Coal,  gold 
Coal 

Mindanao 

Samar 

Negros 

Panay .... 

Coal,  gold,  petroleum 
Coal,  petroleum 
Coal,  gold 
Coal,  petroleum,  gold 

Leyte 

Mindoro 

Cebu 

The  native  population  is  mainly  of  the  Malay  race,  but 
there  are  also  many  Negritos.  Of  the  native  element  the 
Tagals  are  the  most  advanced,  and  are  the  dominant  peo- 
ple. The  foreign  population  includes  nearly  one  hundred 
thousand  Chinese,  who  are  the  chief  commercial  factors  of 
the  islands,  and  the  leading  industries  are  controlled  by 
them.  There  is  a  considerable  population  of  Chinese  and 
Tagal  mixed  blood,  commonly  known  as  "  Chinese  mes- 
tizos " ;  they  inherit,  in  the  main,  the  Chinese  character- 
istics. The  European  and  American  population  consists 
mainly  of  officials,  troops,  and  merchant-agents  for  Philip- 
pine products. 

The  principal  products  for  export  are  "  Manila  "  hemp, 
sugar,  and  tobacco.  The  hemp  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  cordage  and  paper.  On  account  of  the  great  strength 
of  the  fibre  it  has  no  equal  among  cordage  fibres.     The 


258  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

imports  from  the  United  States  consist  mainly  of  ma. 
chinery  and  cotton  textiles.  The  total  trade  of  the  islands 
amounted  in  1901  to  about  fifty  million  dollars,  most  of 
which  was  shared  by  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

Coal  is  mined  in  the  island  of  Cebu  and  is  abundant  in 
most  of  the  islands.  Iron  ore,  copper,  and  sulphur  occur, 
but  they  have  not  been  made  commercially  available  to 
any  extent.  Gold  is  mined  in  the  island  of  Luzon.  A 
stable  government  only  is  needed  to  make  these  great  re- 
sources productive.  An  abundance  of  timber  is  found  in 
most  of  the  islands.  Cedar,  ebony,  and  sapan-wood  are 
available  for  ornamental  purposes;  there  is  also  a  great 
variety  of  economic  woods. 

Manila  is  the  commercial  centre.  Manila  Bay  is  one  of 
the  finest  harbors  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  but  much  work  is 
necessary  to  give  the  water-front  a  navigable  depth  for 
large  steamships.  With  an  improved  harbor  the  city  is 
bound  to  be  a  great  emporium  of  Oriental  trade.  Steam- 
ship lines  connect  the  city  with  Hongkong,  Australia, 
Japan,  Singapore,  and  Liverpool.  There  is  also  a  mili- 
tary transport  service  to  Seattle.  A  railway  to  Dagupan 
extends  through  the  most  important  agricultural  region. 
The  wagon-roads  throughout  the  island  are  very  poor. 

Lipa,  Batanzas,  Bauan,  and  Cavite  are  cities  of  about 
forty  thousand  population,  all  more  or  less  connected  with 
the  industries  of  Manila,  lloilo  is  the  second  port  of  im- 
portance of  the  islands,  and  is  the  centre  of  a  considerable 
export  trade  in  tobacco,  hemp,  sugar,  and  sapan-wood. 
Cebu  is  also  a  port  having  a  considerable  trade. 

Tutuila,  one  of  the  Samoan  Islands,  was  acquired  by 
treaty  for  use  as  a  coal-depot  and  naval  station.  Pago 
Pago  is  a  port  of  call  for  steamships  between  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Australia.  Guam,  one  of  the  Ladrone  Isl- 
ands, is  a  naval  station.    These  possessions  are  strategic 


UNITED   STATES— THE   WESTERN  HIGHLANDS       259 

and  are  designed  to  secure  the  interests  of  the  United 
States  in  the  Pacific.  An  ocean  telegraphic  cable  con- 
nects the  Pacific  Ocean  possessions  with  the  United 
States  and  Asia. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

Why  are  mountain-regions  apt  to  be  sparsely  peopled? 

Why  are  arid  regions  sparsely  peopled,  as  a  rule  ? 

Why  are  not  gold-mining  settlements  so  apt  to  be  permanent 
as  agricultural  settlements  ? 

From  the  Abstract  of  Statistics  find  the  production  of  gold  and 
silver  of  this  region  for  each  ten  years  ending  the  last  half  of  the 
century. 

What  causes  the  difference  between  the  wool  clip  of  southern 
California  and  that  of  the  Eastern  States  ? 

Follow  the  route  of  a  grain-carrying  ship  from  San  Francisco 
to  Liverpool. 

What  are  the  advantages  to  the  United  States  of  the  accession 
of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  ? — of  the  Philippine  Islands  ? — of  Alaska? 
What  are  the  disadvantages? 

FOR  COLLATERAL   READING  AND   REFERENCE 

Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States. 

Abstract  of  Statistics. 

U.  S.  Coast  Survey  Chart  of  Alaska. 

Map  of  Hawaiian  Islands. 

Map  of  Philippine  Islands. 


Niagara  Power-house  (exterior) 


NIAGARA    POWER-HOUSE  (INTERIOR) 


CHAPTER    XXI 
CANADA    AND    NEWFOUNDLAND 

A  VERY  large  part  of  Canada  is  so  far  north  that  the 
ordinary  food-stuffs  cannot  be  grown  there;  the  river- 
valleys  of  British  Columbia  and  the  basin  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan excepted,  there  are  but  few  marks  of  human 
industry  beyond  the  fiftieth  parallel.  The  general  condi- 
tions of  topography  resemble  those  of  the  United  States — 
a  central  plain  between  the  high  Rocky  Mountain  ranges 
in  the  west  and  the  lower  Laurentian  ranges  in  the  east. 

Canada  is  an  agricultural  country,  and  because  of  the 
great  skill  with  which  its  resources  have  been  made  com- 
mercially available,  it  is  the  most  important  colony  of 
Great  Britain.  The  basin  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  -is  the  most  populous  part  of  the  country. 
This  region  is  highly  cultivated  and  produces  dairy  prod- 
ucts, beef,  and  the  ordinary  farm-crops. 

From  Lake  Winnipeg  westward,  nearly  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  the  land  is  a  succession  of  prairies  admirably 
suited  to  wheat-growing.*  The  wheat  is  a  hard,  spring 
variety,  and  the  average  yield  per  acre  is  about  one-fourth 
greater  than  the  average  yield  in  the  United  States. 

The  area  of  forestry  includes  the  larger  remaining  part 
of  the  great  pine  belt,  together  with  a  very  heavy  reserve 

*The  high  latitude  of  the  wheat-region,  which  in  most  cases  is  too 
cold  for  the  growing  of  food-stuffs,  in  this  region  is  tempered  by  occa- 
sional warm  winds  known  as  "  Chinook  winds."  These  winds  are  the 
sai-ing  feature  of  wheat-growing.  They  prevail  also  in  British  Colum- 
bia,  Washington,  and  Oregon. 

261 


262  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

of  merchantable  oak-timber.  The  part  of  the  forest  area 
in  Canada  aggregates  one  and  one-quarter  million  square 
miles,  and  yields  an  annual  product  of  about  eighty  million 
dollars ;  about  one-third  of  the  lumber  is  exported. 

The  northerly  region  of  Canada  produces  furs  and  pelts. 
As  long  ago  as  1670,  Charles  II.  granted  to  Prince  Rupert 
and  a  stock  company  the  lands  comprising  a  very  large 
part  of  Canada  around  Hudson  Bay,  and  secured  to  them 
the  sole  right  to  trap  the  fur-bearing  animals  of  the  region. 
In  time  the  company,  known  as  the  Hudson  Bay  Company, 
transferred  all  its  lands  to  Canada,  and  out  of  the  domain 
thus  annexed  various  provinces  and  unorganized  districts 
have  been  created. 

The  company  now  exists  as  a  corporation  for  the  mer- 
chandise of  furs.  For  the  greater  part,  Indians  are  em- 
ployed as  hunters  and  trappers,  and  the  pelts  are  collected 
at  the  various  trading-posts,  known  as  "houses"  and  " fac- 
tories," to  be  sent  to  the  head-quarters  of  the  company  near 
Winnipeg.  Nearly  every  Arctic  animal  furnishes  a  mer- 
chantable pelt.  The  cheaper  skins  are  made  into  garments 
in  Canada  and  the  United  States ;  those  commonly  classed 
as  furs  are  sold  in  London.  Several  other  fur  companies 
are  also  operating  in  Canada. 

The  fisheries  of  the  coast-waters  and  the  Great  Lakes 
are  among  the  most  productive  in  the  world.  Everything 
within  the  three-mile  limit  of  the  shore  is  reserved  for 
Canadian  fishermen.  The  smaller  bays  and  coves  are 
reserved  also  within  the  three-mile  limit.  Beyond  this 
limit  the  waters  are  open  to  all,  and  a  fleet  of  swift  gun- 
boats is  necessary  to  prevent  illicit  fishing.  Salmon,  cod, 
lobsters,  and  herring  form  most  of  the  catch,  amounting  in 
value  to  upward  of  twenty  million  dollars  yearly. 

The  output  of  minerals  varies  from  }Tear  to  year ; 
since  1900  it  has  averaged  about  sixty  million  dollars  a 


CANADA   AND   NEWFOUNDLAND  263 

year.  The  gold  product  constitutes  nearly  one- half  and 
the  coal  about  one-sixth  of  the  total  amount.  Nickel, 
petroleum,  silver,  and  lead  form  the  rest  of  the  output. 
Iron  ore  is  abundant,  but  it  is  not  at  present  available  for 
production  on  account  of  the  distance  from  transportation. 

Commerce  is  facilitated  by  about  eighteen  thousand  miles 
of  railway  and  nearly  three  thousand  miles  of  canal  and 
improved  river-navigation.  One  ocean-to-ocean  railway, 
the  Canadian  Pacific,  is  in  operation  ;  another,  an  extension 
of  the  Grand  Trunk,  is  under  way.  The  rapids  and  shoals 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Richelieu  Rivers  are  surmounted 
by  canals  and  locks.  Welland  Canal  connects  Lake  Erie 
and  Lake  Ontario,  and  the  Canadian  lock  at  St.  Mary's 
Falls  joins  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Huron.  By  means  of 
the  lakes  and  canals  vessels  drawing  fourteen  feet  may 
load  at  Canadian  ports  and  discharge  at  Liverpool. 

The  harbors  of  the  Atlantic  coast  have  two  great  draw- 
backs— ice  and  high  tides.  Some  of  the  steamship  lines 
make  Portland,  Me.,  their  winter  terminus.  The  Pacific 
coast  harbors  are  not  obstructed  by  ice.  An  attempt  has 
been  made  in  the  direction  of  using  Hudson  Bay  and  Strait 
as  a  grain-route,  but  the  difficulties  of  navigation  are  very 
great  and  the  route  is  open  only  two  months  of  the  year. 

Practically  all  the  foreign  trade  is  carried  on  with  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States.  The  trade  with  each 
aggregates  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  million  dollars 
yearly.  The  exports  are  lumber  and  wood-pulp,  cheese 
and  dairy  products,  wheat  and  flour,  beef-cattle,  hog  prod- 
ucts, fish,  and  gold- quartz.  The  chief  imports  are  steel, 
wool,  sugar,  and  cotton  manufactures. 

Politically,  Canada  consists  of  a  number  of  provinces, 
each  with  the  usual  corps  of  elective  officers.  A  governor- 
general  appointed  by  the  Crown  of  Great  Britain  is  the 
chief  executive  officer. 


264  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Nova  Scotia. — This  province  is  prominent  on  account  of 
its  coal  and  iron,  and  also  because  of  its  geographic  position. 
The  iron  and  coal  are  utilized  in  steel  smelteries  and  rolling- 
mills,  glass-factories,  sugar-refineries,  and  textile-mills.  It 
is  one  of  the  few  localities  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  conti- 
nent yielding  gold.  Halifax,  the  capital,  has  one  of  the  best 
harbors  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  North  America ;  it  is  not 
often  obstructed  by  ice,  and  is  the  chief  winter  port.  Hali- 
fax is  the  principal  British  naval  station  of  North  America, 
and  this  fact  adds  much  to  its  commercial  activity. 

Prince  Edward  Island. — The  industries  of  this  prov- 
ince are  mainly  connected  with  the  coast-fisheries.  Dur- 
ing the  summer  the  island  is  visited  by  thousands  of 
fishing- vessels  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  the  catch  for 
market.  Fertilizer  manufactured  from  the  refuse  is  an 
incidental  product.      Charlottetown  is  the  capital. 

New  Brunswick. — Fisheries  and  forest  products  are 
both  resources  of  this  province.  Coal  is  mined  at  Grand 
Lake,  and  an  excellent  lime  for  export  to  the  United  States 
is  made  at  St.  John.  Lumber,  wood-pulp,  wooden  sailing- 
vessels,  cotton  textiles,  and  structural  steel  for  ship-build- 
ing are  manufactured.  A  ship  railway,  seventeen  miles 
long,  across  the  isthmus  that  connects  this  province  to 
Nova  Scotia,  is  under  construction.  St.  John,  the  capital, 
is  the  chief  seat  of  trade. 

Quebec. —  This  province  was  once  a  possession  of 
France,  and  in  the  greater  part  of  it  French  customs  are 
yet  about  as  prevalent  as  they  were  a  century  ago  ;  more- 
over, the  French  population  is  increasing  rapidly.  The 
English-speaking  population  lives  mainly  along  the  Ver- 
mont border.  As  a  rule  the  English  are  the  manufact- 
urers and  traders ;  the  French  people  are  the  farmers. 

Montreal  is  the  head  of  navigation  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
for  ocean  steamships.     It  is  also  the  chief  centre  of  manu- 


CANADA  AND   NEWFOUNDLAND  265 

factures.  These  are  mainly  sugar,  rubber  goods,  textiles, 
light  steel  wares,  and  leather.  The  last-named  goes  almost 
wholly  to  Great  Britain ;  the  rest  are  consumed  in  Canada 
and  the  border  American  States.  Quebec  is  the  most 
strongly  fortified  city  of  the  Dominion. 

Ontario. — This  province  is  a  peninsula  bordered  by 
Lakes  Huron,  Erie,  and  Ontario.  Farming  is  the  chief 
employment,  and  barley  is  an  important  product.  Most 
of  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  malt,  and  "  Canada 
malt "  is  regarded  as  the  best.  Several  of  the  trunk  rail- 
ways whose  terminals  are  in  the  United  States  traverse 
this  peninsula.  Toronto,  the  capital  and  commercial 
centre,  is  one  of  the  most  rapidly  growing  cities  of  North 
America.  Hamilton  owes  its  existence  to  its  harbor  and 
position  at  the  head  of  Lake  Ontario.  Ottawa  is  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Dominion.  At  Sudbury  are  the  nickel-mines  that 
are  among  the  most  productive  in  the  world. 

Manitoba,  Assiniboia,  Saskatchewan,  and  Alberta. 
— These  provinces  include  the  level  lands  of  the  Sas- 
katchewan and  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  and  comprise 
the  great  wheat-field  of  Canada.  A  considerable  part  of 
the  wheat-growing  lands  are  yet  unproductive  owing  to 
the  lack  of  railways.  Much  of  the  product  is  carried  to 
market  by  the  Canadian  Pacific  and  its  feeders,  but  a  con- 
siderable part  finds  its  way  to  the  Northern  Pacific  and 
Great  Northern  roads.  The  coal  of  Manitoba  and  Alberta 
is  an  important  fuel  supply  not  only  to  the  provinces  and 
states  surrounding,  but  to  the  railways  above  named.  A 
good  quality  of  anthracite  coal  is  also  mined  in  Alberta. 
Winnipeg,  the  metropolis  of  the  region,  is  one  of  the  great 
railway  centres  of  Canada. 

British  Columbia. — British  Columbia,  the  Pacific  coast 
province,  has  several  resources  of  great  value.  The  gold 
mines  led  to  its  settlement  and  commercial  opening.     The 


266  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

salmon-fisheries  are  surpassed  by  those  of  the  United 
States  only.  The  beds  of  lignite  coal  have  produced  a 
very  large  part  of  the  coal  used  in  the  Pacific  coast  States. 
The  forests  produce  lumber  for  shipment  both  to  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  America  and  the  Pacific  coast  of  Asia. 

Vancouver,  the  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Bail- 
way,  is  connected  with  various  Asian  ports  by  fast  steam- 
ships. Nanaimo,  Wellington,  and  Commox  are  the  centres 
of  the  coal-mining  industry.  The  copper-mines  at  Boss- 
land  produce  most  of  the  copper  mined  in  Canada. 

Newfoundland. — Although  a  Crown  possession,  New- 
foundland is  not  a  member  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
The  extensive  fisheries  are  its  chief  resource.  The  Labra- 
dor coast,  which  is  used  as  a  resort  for  curing  and  preserv- 
ing the  catch,  is  attached  to  Newfoundland  for  the  purpose 
of  government.     St  Johns  is  the  capital. 

The  islands  of  Miquelon  and  St.  Pierre,  south  of  New- 
foundland, are  a  French  possession.  Fishing  is  the  osten- 
sible industry,  but  a  great  deal  of  smuggling  is  carried  on. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DISCUSSION 

What,  if  any,  climatic  or  topographic  boundaries  separate 
Canada  and  the  United  States  ? 

Which  of  the  two  countries  is  the  more  fortunately  situated 
for  the  production  of  food-stuffs? 

Which  will  support  the  larger  population? — why? 

The  harbors  of  the  Labrador  coast  and  of  Cape  Breton  Island 
are  superior  to  those  of  the  British  Islands,  situated  in  about  the 
same  latitude ;  why  do  the  latter  have  a  commerce  far  greater 
than  that  of  the  former  ? 

Compare  the  industries  of  the  eastern,  middle,  and  western 
regions  of  Canada  with  the  corresponding  regions  of  the  United 
States. 

FOR  COLLATERAL   REFERENCE 

Statesman's  Year-Book. 

Statistical  Year-Book  of  Canada  (official  government  publica- 
tion, Ottawa). 


CHAPTEE  XXII 
MEXICO— CENTRAL   AMERICA— WEST   INDIES 

Mexico  and  the  Central  American  states  occupy  the  nar- 
row, southerly  part  of  North  America.  Structurally  they 
consist  of  a  plateau  about  a  mile  high,  bordered  on  each 
side  by  a  low  coast-plain.  The  table-land,  or  tierra  tem- 
plada,  has  about  the  same  climate  as  southern  California ; 
the  low  coast-plains,  or  tierra  caliente,  are  tropical. 

Mexico. — The  United  States  of  Mexico  is  the  most  im- 
portant part  of  this  group.  The  people  are  of  mixed  Span- 
ish and  Indian  blood,  but  there  are  many  families  of  pure 
Castilian  descent.  The  latter,  in  general,  are  the  landed 
proprietors ;  the  former  constitute  the  tradesmen,  herders, 
and  peons.  There  is  also  a  very  large  unproductive  class, 
mainly  of  Indians,  who  are  living  in  a  savage  state.  In 
general,  the  manners  and  customs  are  those  of  Spain. 

The  agricultural  pursuits  are  in  a  backward  condition, 
partly  for  the  want  of  good  system  and  an  educated  people, 
but  mainly  for  lack  of  the  capital  and  engineering  skill  to 
construct  the  irrigating  canals  that  are  needed  to  make  the 
land  productive.  Maize,  rice,  sugar  (cane  and  panocha), 
and  wheat  are  grown  for  home  consumption. 

The  agricultural  products  which  connect  Mexico  with 
the  rest  of  the  world  are  sisal-hemp  (henequin),  coffee, 
logwood,  and  fruit.  Sisal-hemp  is  grown  in  the  state  of 
Yucatan,  and  has  become  one  of  its  chief  financial  re- 
sources. Oaxaca  coffee  is  usually  sold  as  a  "  Mocha " 
berry.    The  logwood  goes  mainly  to  British  textile -makers; 

267 


268 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


and  the  fruit,  chiefly  oranges  and  bananas,  finds  a  market 
in  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  to  which  large  con- 
signments of  vanilla  and  tropical  woods  are  also  sent. 
Cattle  are  grown  on  more  than  twenty  thousand  ranches, 
and  the  greater  part  are  sent  alive  to  the  markets  of  the 
United  States.  The  native  long-horn  stock  is  giving  place 
to  improved  breeds. 


ISLANDS     k 


m         D.irangc. 


la.-  » 


r 


\NEoisBeyes,,  _ 
"fS^y      Morelia 
-Tlaiizauilio^     o^eop'ocat&p 


/\-y      £ai 
'eraeruz 


MEXICO 

Scale  of  Statute  Miles. 

0  100  300  600 

Railroads  s—  Steamship  Boutes  ; 

H,-N.~EN6. iip° 


£  ft     GMopCni) 

jCampecbe,,ca. 

tUpiiikQ*.    OaxaoaN     *     |         '%   .  SaiTtoM^a\0.£T,ius 


<£»       Aeapulepv. 


IKehuailtepe 


-1- 


Piierto-Angel 


105°     Longitude    West  )oo°  from    Greenwich' ~95°-_ 


-    .    ./UOSDCRAS 

Ooft<ina\a     ^-•v^ 


Gold  and  silver  are  the  products  that  have  made  Mexico 
famous,  and  the  mines  have  produced  a  total  of  more  than 
three  billion  dollars'  worth  of  precious  metal.  The  native 
methods  of  mining  have  always  been  primitive,  and  low- 
grade  ores  have  been  neglected.  In  recent  years  Amer- 
ican and  European  capital  has  been  invested  in  low-grade 
mines,  and  the  bullion  production  has  been  about  doubled 
in  value;  it  is  now  about  one  hundred  million  dollars 
yearly.     Iron  ore  is  abundant,  and  good  coal  exists. 


MEXICO — CENTRAL   AMERICA — WEST   INDIES       269 

The  manufactures,  at  present  of  little  importance,  are 
growing  rapidly.  The  cotton-mills  consume  the  home 
product  and  fill  their  deficiency  from  the  Texas  crop.  All 
the  finer  textiles,  however,  are  imported.  Most  of  the 
commodities  are  supplied  by  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  and  Germany,  the  first-named  having  about  half 
the  trade.  Most  of  the  hardware  and  machinery  is  pur- 
chased in  the  United  States. 

Eailway  systems,  with  American  terminal  points  at  El 
Paso,  San  Antonio,  and  New  Orleans,  extend  from  the  most 
productive  parts  of  the  country.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant railways  crosses  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  and,  in 
order  to  encourage  commerce,  the  harbors  at  Coatzacoalcos 
and  Salina  Cruz  have  been  deepened  and  improved.  This 
interoceanic  route  is  destined  to  become  a  very  important 
factor  in  commerce.  It  shortens  the  route  between  Eu- 
ropean ports  and  San  Francisco  by  six  thousand  miles,  and 
between  New  York  and  San  Francisco  by  twelve  hundred 
miles.* 

Mexico,  the  capital,  is  the  financial  and  commercial  cen- 
tre. Vera  Cruz  and  Tampico  are  connected  with  the  capital 
by  railway,  but  both  have  very  poor  port  facilities.  Steam- 
ship lines  connect  the  former  with  New  York,  New  Orleans, 
Havana,  and  French  ports.  It  is  the  chief  port  of  the 
country.  Matamoros  on  the  American  frontier  has  a  con- 
siderable cattle-trade.  The  crop  of  sisal-hemp  is  shipped 
mainly  from  Progresso  and  Merida.  Acapulco,  Manzanillo, 
and  Mazatlan  for  want  of  railway  connections  have  but 
little  trade.  The  first-named  is  one  of  the  best  harbors  in 
the  world.  Guadalajara  has  important  textile  and  pottery 
manufactures. 

*  Freight  rates  from  Coatzacoalcos  to  San  Francisco  are  already  fixed  at 
$6.50  per  ton ;  by  the  transcontinental  railways  they  vary  from  $12  to  $15 
per  ton. 


270 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


The  Central  American  States. — The  physical  feat- 
ures and  climate  of  these  states  resemble  those  of  Mexico. 
The  Spanish-speaking  people  live  in  the  table-lands, 
where  the  climate  is  healthful.  The  coast-plain  of  the 
Atlantic  is  forest-covered  and  practically  uninhabited  save 
by  Indians.  Guatemala  is  the  most  important  state.  A 
railway  from  Puerto  Barrios,  its  Atlantic  port,  through  its 
capital,  Guatemala,  to  its  Pacific  port,  San  Jose,  is  nearly 
completed.     British  Honduras  is  a  British  territory  ac- 


quired mainly  for  the  mahogany  product,  which  is  shipped 
from  Belize.  Honduras  has  great  resources  in  mines,  culti- 
vable lands,  and  forests,  but  these  are  undeveloped.  Sal- 
vador is  the  smallest  but  most  progressive  state. 

Nicaragua  is  politically  of  importance  on  account  of 
the  possibilities  of  an  interoceanic  canal.  A  treaty  for 
this  canal,  involving  both  Nicaragua  and  Great  Britain, 
has  already  been  signed  by  the  powers  interested.  Many 
engineers  regard  the  Nicaragua  as  preferable  to  that  of  the 
Panama  canal.  The  shorter  distance  between  New  York 
and  the  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States,  a  saving  of 


MEXICO — CENTRAL  AMERICA — WEST   INDIES       271 

about  four  hundred  miles,  is  in  its  favor.  The  longer  dis- 
tance of  transit  and  the  dangers  of  navigating  Lake  Nica- 
ragua are  against  it.  Costa  Rica  is  favorably  situated  for 
commerce,  but  its  resources  are  not  developed.  A  railway 
from  Puerto  Limon  is  nearly  completed  to  Puenta  Arenas, 
an  excellent  harbor  on  the  Pacific  side. 

Coffee,  hides,  mahogany,  and  fruit  are  the  only  products 
of  importance  that  connect  these  states  with  the  rest  of 
the  world.  About  half  the  trade  goes  to  the  United 
States.  The  Germans  and  English  supply  a  considerable 
part  of  the  textiles  and  manufactured  articles.  The  coffee 
of  Costa  Eica  is  a  very  superior  product.  Much  of  the 
mahogany  and  forest  products  goes  to  Great  Britain. 
Fruit-steamers  call  at  the  Atlantic  ports  for  bananas, 
which  are  sold  in  New  Orleans  and  the  Atlantic   cities. 

The  West  Indies.— The  climate  and  productions  of 
these  islands  are  tropical  in  character.  Sugar,  fruit,  coffee, 
tobacco,  and  cacao  are  the  leading  products.  From  the 
stand-point  of  the  planter,  the  sugar  industry  has  been  a 
history  of  misfortunes.  The  abolition  of  slavery  ruined 
the  industry  in  many  of  the  islands  belonging  to  Great 
Britain.  The  competition  of  the  beet- sugar  made  in  Eu- 
rope drove  the  Cubans  into  insurrection  on  account  of  the 
excessive  taxes  levied  by  the  Spaniards,  and  ended  in  the 
Spanish-American  War. 

The  fruit- crop — mainly  pineapples,  oranges,  and  grape- 
fruit— is  shipped  to  the  United  States.  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, and  the  Gulf  ports  are  the  destination  of  the 
greater  part  of  it. 

Cuba,  the  largest  island,  is  one  of  the  most  productive 
regions  of  the  world.  The  famous  "Havana"  tobacco 
grows  mainly  in  the  western  part,  although  practically  all 
Cuban  tobacco  is  classed  under  this  name.  According  to 
popular  opinion  it  is  pre-eminently  the  best  in  flavor,  and 


272  COMMERCIAL   GEOGKAPHY 

the  price  is  not  affected  by  that  of  other  tobaccos.*  About 
two-thirds  of  the  raw  leaf  and  cigars  are  purchased  by  the 
tobacco  manufacturers  of  the  United  States.  Havana, 
Santiago,  and  Cienfuegos  are  the  shipping  ports ;  most  of 
the  export  is  landed  at  New  York,  Key  West,  and  Tampa. 

From  1900  to  1903  the  small  fraction  of  the  sugar  in- 
dustry that  survived  the  war  and  the  insurrection  was 
crippled  by  the  high  tariff  on  sugar  imported  into  the 
United  States.  The  latter,  which  was  designed  to  protect 
the  home  sugar  industry,  was  so  high  that  the  Cubans 
could  not  afford  to  make  sugar  at  the  ruling  prices  in  New 
York.  Hides,  honey,  and  Spanish  cedar  for  cigar-boxes 
are  also  important  exports. 

The  United  States  is  the  chief  customer  of  Cuba,  and  in 
turn  supplies  the  Cubans  with  flour,  textile  goods,  hard- 
ware, and  coal-oil.  Smoked  meat  from  Latin  America 
and  preserved  fish  from  Canada  and  Newfoundland  are 
the  remaining  imports.  There  are  no  manufactures  of 
importance.  The  railways  are  mainly  for  the  purpose  of 
handling  the  sugar-crop. 

Havana,  the  capital  and  financial  centre,  is  connected 
with  New  York,  New  Orleans,  and  Key  West  by  steamship 
lines.  Santiago,  Matanzas,  and  Cienfuegos  are  ports  having 
a  considerable  trade. 

The  British  possessions  in  the  West  Indies  are  com- 
mercially the  most  important  of  the  European  possessions. 
The  Bahamas  are  low-lying  coral  islands,  producing  but 
little  except  sponges,  fruit,  and  sisal-hemp.  Nassau,  the 
only  town  of  importance,  is  a  winter  resort.  Fruit,  sugar, 
rum,  coffee,  and  ginger  are  exported  from  Kingston,  the 
port  of  Jamaica.  St  Lucia  has  probably  the  strongest 
fortress  in  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

*  The  entire  Cuban  crop  is  comparatively  small,  being  but  little  more 
than  one-eighth  that  of  the  United  States. 


MEXICO— CENTRAL  AMERICA — WEST   INDIES       273 

Barbados  produces  more  sugar  than  any  other  British 
possession  in  the  West  Indies.  The  raw  sugar,  musco- 
vado, is  shipped  to  the  United  States.  Bermuda,  an  out- 
lying island,  furnishes  the  Atlantic  states  with  onions, 
Easter  lilies,  and  early  potatoes.  From  Trinidad  is  ob- 
tained the  asphaltum,  or  natural  tar,  that  is  used  for  street 
paving.  Brea  Lake,  the  source  of  the  mineral,  is  leased  to 
a  New  York  company.  Sugar  and  cacao  nre  also  exported 
from  Port  of  Spain.  The  products  of  St.  Vincent  and 
Dominica  are  similar  to  those  of  the  other  islands. 

The  French  own  Martinique  {Fort  de  France)  and  Guade- 
loupe (Basse  Terre).  St.  Thomas  (Charlotte  Amalie),  St. 
Croix,  and  St.  John  are  Danish  possessions.  Various 
attempts  to  transfer  the  Danish  islands  to  the  United 
States  have  failed.  They  are  admirably  adapted  for  naval 
stations.  The  island  of  Haiti  consists  of  two  negro  repub- 
lics, Haiti  and  San  Domingo.  The  only  important  product 
is  coffee.  Most  of  the  product  is  shipped  to  the  United 
States,  which  supplies  coal  oil  and  textiles  in  return. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

What  part  of  the  United  States  was  formerly  a  possession  of 
Mexico,  and  how  did  it  become  a  possession  of  the  United  States  ? 

From  a  cyclopedia  learn  the  character  of  the  political  organ- 
ization of  Mexico  and  the  Central  American  states. 

From  the  report  listed  below  find  what  commercial  routes 
gain,  and  what  ones  lose  in  distance  by  the  Nicaragua,  as  com- 
pared with  the  Panama  canal. 

From  a  good  atlas  make  a  list  of  the  islands  of  the  West 
Indies  ;  name  the  country  to  which  each  belongs,  and  its  ex- 
ports to  the  United  States. 

FOR  COLLATERAL  READING  AND  REFERENCE 

The  Statesman's  Year- Book. 

Great  Canals  of  the  World- pp.  4058-4059. 


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III 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
SOUTH  AMERICA— THE   ANDEAN   STATES 

In  its  general  surface  features  South  America  resembles 
North  America— that  is,  a  central  plain  is  bordered  by  low 
ranges  on  the  east  and  by  a  high  mountain  system  on  the 
west.  In  the  southern  part,  midsummer  is  in  January  and 
midwinter  in  July.  The  mineral-producing  states  are 
traversed  by  the  ranges  of  the  Andes  and  all  of  them  ex- 
cept Chile  are  situated  on  both  slopes  of  the  mountains. 

Colombia. — This  republic  borders  both  the  Caribbean 
Sea  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  One  port  excepted,  however, 
most  of  its  commerce  is  confined  to  the  shores  of  the  Carib- 
bean Sea.  The  lowlands  east  of  the  Andes  are  admirably 
adapted  for  grazing,  and  such  cattle  products  as  hides? 
horns,  and  tallow  are  articles  of  export.  This  region,  how- 
ever, even  with  the  present  facilities  for  transportation, 
produces  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  products  possible. 

The  intermontane  valleys  between  the  Andean  ranges 
have  the  climate  of  the  temperate  zone ;  wheat  and  sheep 
are  produced.  The  chief  industrial  development,  however, 
is  confined  to  the  lands  near  the  Caribbean  coast.  Coffee, 
cacao,  and  tobacco  are  grown  for  export,  the  business  of 
cultivation  being  largely  controlled  by  Americans  and  Eu- 
ropeans. Rubber,  copaiba,  tolu,  and  vegetable  ivory*  are 
gathered  by  Indians  from  the  forests. 

The  montane  region  has  long  been  famous  for  its  mines 
of  gold  and  silver.     The  salt  mines  near  Bogota  are  a  gov- 

*  Vegetable  ivory  is  the  seed  or  nut  of  a  species  of  palm  (Phytelephas 
macrocarpa).  The  kernel  of  the  nut  gradually  acquires  the  hardness  and 
appearance  of  the  best  ivory,  for  which  it  is  employed  as  a  substitute. 

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SOUTH    AMERICA — THE    ANDEAN   STATES  277 

eminent  monopoly  and  yield  a  considerable  revenue.  Near 
the  same  city  are  the  famous  Muzo  emerald  mines. 

The  rivers  are  the  chief  channels  of  internal  trade. 
During  the  rainy  season  steamboats  ascend  the  Orinoco  to 
Cabugaro,  about  two  hundred  miles  from  Bogota.  About 
fifty  steamboats  are  in  commission  on  the  Magdalena  and 
its  tributary,  the  Cauca.  Mule  trains  traversing  wretched 
trails  require  from  one  to  two  weeks  to  transport  the  goods 
from  the  river  landings  to  the  chief  centres  of  population. 
Improvements  now  under  way  in  clearing  and  canalizing 
these  rivers  will  add  about  five  hundred  miles  of  additional 
waterway.  The  railways  consist  of  short  lines  mainly 
used  as  portages  around  obstructions  of  the  rivers. 

An  unstable  government  and  an  onerous  system  of  ex- 
port taxes  hamper  trade.  Coffee,  a  leading  product,  goes 
mainly  to  Europe.  Cattle  products,  and  balsam  of  tolu 
are  purchased  mainly  in  the  United  States.  Great  Britain 
purchases  the  gold  and  silver  ores.  The  chief  imports — 
textiles,  flour,  and  petroleum — are  purchased  in  the  United 
States.  Bogota  and  Medellin  are  the  largest  cities.  The 
isolation  of  the  region  in  which  they  are  situated  shapes 
the  indifferent  foreign  policy  of  the  government.  Barran- 
quilla,  Sabanilla,  and  Cartagena  are  the  chief  ports. 

Panama. — This  state,  formerly  a  part  of  Colombia,  in- 
cludes the  isthmus  of  Panama.  Geographically  it  belongs 
to  North  America,  and  practically  it  can  be  approached 
from  Colombia  by  water  only.  The  secession  of  Panama 
was  brought  about  by  the  complications  of  the  isthmian 
canal.  A  treaty  with  the  United  States  gives  the  latter 
sovereign  control  over  the  canal  and  the  strip  of  knd  ten 
miles  wide  bordering  it.  Panama  and  Colon  are  the  two 
ports  of  the  canal.  The  United  States  exercises  police 
and  sanitary  regulations  in  these  cities,  but  it  has  no 
sovereignty  over  them. 


278  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Peru. — Peru  has  great  resources,  both  agricultural  and 
mineral.  Cotton  is  one  of  the  chief  products.  The  ordi- 
nary fibre  is  excelled  only  by  the  sea-island  cotton  of  the 
United  States;  the  long-staple  fibre  of  the  Piura  is  the 
best  grown.  The  former  is  generally  employed  for  mixing 
with  wool  in  the  manufacture  of  underwear,  and  is  sold  in 
the  United  States  and  Europe ;  the  latter,  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  thread  and  the  web  of  pneumatic  tires,  goes 
mainly  to  Great  Britain. 

Cane-sugar  is  a  very  large  export  crop,  Great  Britain, 
the  United  States,  and  Chile  being  the  principal  customers. 
The  area  of  coffee  production  is  growing  rapidly.  Coca- 
growing  has  become  an  important  industry,  and  the  planta- 
tions aggregate  about  three  million  trees ;  *  a  large  part 
of  the  product  is  sent  to  the  chemical  laboratories  of  the 
United  States.  A  small  crop  of  rice  for  export  is  grown 
on  the  coast. 

The  Amazon  forest  products  yield  a  considerable  reve- 
nue. Rubber  and  vegetable  ivory  are  the  most  valuable. 
Cinchona,  or  Peruvian  bark,  however,  is  the  one  for  which 
the  state  is  best  known  ;  and  there  is  probably  not  a  drug- 
shop  in  the  civilized  world  that  does  not  carry  it  in  stock.f 

*  The  leaves  of  this  shrub  {Erytlnroxylon  coca)  contain  a  stimulant  sub- 
stance that  in  its  effects  is  much  like  the  active  principle  of  coffee.  They 
are  much  used  by  the  native  laborers  to  ward  off  the  feeling  of  lassitude 
that  comes  with  severe  labor  in  a  tropical  climate.  A  native  porter  will 
carry  a  load  of  one  hundred  pounds  a  distance  of  sixty  miles  with  no  food 
or  rest,  but  merely  chewing  a  few  coca-leaves.  The  plant  yields  the  sub- 
stance cocaine,  now  in  demand  all  over  the  world  as  an  anaesthetic  in  eye 
and  throat  surgery. 

f  More  than  a  score  of  species  of  the  tree  from  which  this  bark  is  ob- 
tained grow  in  the  higher  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes,  but  a  very  large 
part  is  obtained  from  the  tree,  Cinchona  calisaya.  The  medicinal  sub- 
stance, quinine,  is  extracted  from  the  bark,  and  in  the  past  half-century  it 
has  become  the  specific  for  malarial  fevers.  So  great  is  the  demand  for 
it,  that  the  cinchona-tree  is  now  cultivated  in  India,  Java,  and  Mexico. 


SOUTH   AMERICA — THE   ANDEAN   STATES  279 

Cattle  are  grown  for  their  hides,  and  of  these  the  United 
States  is  the  chief  purchaser.  The  wool  of  the  llama,  al- 
paca, and  vicuna  is  used  in  manufacture  of  the  cloth  known 
as  alpaca,  and  the  value  of  the  shipments  to  Great  Britain 
usually  exceeds  one  million  dollars  a  year.  In  the  mining 
regions  the  llama  is  used  as  a  pack-animal,  and  a  large 
part  of  the  mine  products  reach  the  markets  by  this 
means  of  transportation.  The  mines  yield  silver  and  cop- 
per; in  the  main  the  ores  are  exported  to  Great  Britain 
to  be  smelted. 

The  products  already  named  are  the  chief  exports ;  the 
imports  are  cotton  textiles,  machinery,  steel  wares,  and 
coal- oil.  Great  Britain  has  about  one-half  the  foreign 
trade  ;  the  United  States  controls  about  one-fourth.  Cal- 
lao,  the  port  of  Lima,  is  the  market  through  which  most 
of  the  foreign  trade  is  carried  on.  Steamship  lines  connect 
it  with  San  Francisco  and  with  British  ports.  Mollendo  is 
the  outlet  of  Bolivian  trade.  The  railways  are  short  lines 
extending  from  the  coast. 

Ecuador. — This  state  has  but  little  commercial  impor- 
tance. The  only  cultivated  products  for  export  are  cacao, 
coffee,  and  sugar.  The  first-named  constitutes  three-fourths 
of  the  exports,  and  most  of  it  goes  to  France.  The  land 
is  held  in  large  estates,  and  most  of  the  laboring  people  are 
in  a  condition  of  practical  slavery.  The  bread-stuffs  con- 
sumed by  the  foreign  population  and  the  land  proprietors 
are  imported.  Animals  are  grown  for  their  hides  and 
these  are  sold  to  the  United  States. 

Another  manufacture  that  connects  Ecuador  with  the 
rest  of  the  world  is  the  so-called  "Panama  "  hat.  The  ma- 
terial used  is  toquilla  straw,  the  mid-rib  of  the  screw-pine 
(Carlodovica  palmata).  The  prepared  straw  can  be  plaited 
only  when  the  atmosphere  is  very  moist,  and  much  of  the 
work  is  done  at  night.     The  hats  are  made  by  Indians, 


280  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

who  are  governed  by  their  own  ideas  regarding  style  and 
shape.  They  bring  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  dollars  apiece 
in  the  American  markets,  where  nearly  all  the  product  is 
sold.* 

Mule-paths  are  the  only  means  of  inland  communication. 
There  is  a  considerable  local  traffic  on  the  estuaries  of  the 
rivers,  but  this  is  confined  to  the  rainy  seasons.  A  railway 
built  by  an  American  company  is  in  operation  from  Guaya- 
quil, a  short  distance  inland.  This  city  is  the  chief  market 
for  foreign  goods,  and  it  is  the  only  foreign  port  of  the  Pa- 
cific coast  of  South  America  in  which  the  volume  of  trade 
of  the  United  States  approximates  that  of  Germany  and 
Great  Britain. 

Bolivia. — Bolivia  lost  much  of  its  possible  commercial 
possible  future  when,  after  a  disastrous  war,  its  Pacific 
coast  frontage  became  a  possession  of  Chile.  The  agricult- 
ural lands  are  unfortunately  situated  with  reference  to  the 
mining  population ;  as  a  result,  a  considerable  amount  of 
food- stuffs  must  be  imported  from  Argentina.  Coffee,  cacao, 
and  coca  are  the  principal  cultivated  products.  Rubber 
from  the  Amazon  forest  is  the  most  valuable  vegetable 
product,  but  a  considerable  amount  of  cinchona  bark  and 
ivory  nuts  are  also  exported. 

The  mines,  however,  are  the  chief  wealth  of  the  state 
and  give  it  the  only  excuse  for  its  political  existence. 
They  produce  silver,  tin,  copper,  gold,  and  borate  of  lime. 
Inasmuch  as  a  large  part  of  the  ore  and  ore  products  must 
be  transported  by  llamas  and  mules,  only  the  richest  mines 
can  be  profitably  -worked.  With  adequate  means  of  trans- 
portation, the  mines  should  make  Bolivia  one  of  the  most 
powerful  South  American  states. 

*  Only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  Panama  hats  in  the  market  are 
genuine.  Many  of  the  imitations,  selling  at  retail  for  ten  dollars  or  more, 
are  serviceable  hats ;  most  of  them,  however,  have  but  little  worth. 


SOUTH   AMERICA — THE   ANDEAN   STATES  281 

Railways  already  connect  Oruro  with  the  sea-coast. 
A  railway  now  under  construction  will  connect  La  Paz 
(the  pass)  with  the  Pacific  coast,  and  also  Buenos  Aires. 
Excellent  roads  to  take  the  place  of  the  pack-trains  are 
under  construction. 

Practically  all  the  imports,  consisting  of  cotton  and 
woollen  textiles,  machinery,  and  steel  wares,  are  purchased 
in  Great  Britain.  The  exports  are  more  than  double  the 
imports.  Most  of  the  goods  pass  through  the  Chilean 
port  Antofagasto,  or  Mollendo,  Peru.  La  Paz,  Oruro, 
and  Sucre  are  the  chief  cities. 

The  hypothetical  state  of  Acre  is  situated  in  the  angle 
where  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Brazil  join.  The  rubber  forests, 
together  with  the  absence  of  legal  government,  led  to 
its  existence.  The  government  is  wholly  insurrectionary, 
but  it  at  least  uses  its  powers  to  encourage  the  rubber 
trade. 

Chile — This  state  comprises  the  narrow  western  slope 
of  the  Ancles,  extending  from  the  tropic  of  Capricorn 
to  Cape  Horn,  a  distance  of  about  three  thousand 
miles.  The  resources  of  the  state  have  been  so  skilfully 
handled,  that  with  the  drawback  of  a  very  small  pro- 
portion of  cultivable  land,  Chile  is  the  foremost  Andean 
state. 

The  cultivation  of  the  ordinary  crops  is  confined  to  the 
flood-plains  of  the  short  rivers.  These,  as  a  rule,  are  from 
twenty  to  fifty  miles  long  and  a  mile  or  two  in  width. 
They  are  densely  peopled  and  cultivated  to  the  limit.  Be- 
tween the  river-valleys  are  long  stretches  of  unproductive 
land. 

Within  the  valleys  wheat,  barley,  fruit,  and  various  food- 
stuffs are  grown.  Of  these  there  are  not  only  enough  for 
home  consumption,  but  considerable  quantities  are  exported 
to  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Ecuador.     Much  of  the  cultivable  land 


282  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

requires  to  be  watered,  and  the  system  of  irrigation  has 
been  developed  with  extraordinary  skill.  The  grazing 
lands  are  extensive.  In  the  northern  part  an  excellent 
quality  of  merino  wool  is  produced  ;  the  greater  part  of  the 
clip,  however,  is  an  ordinary  fibre.  The  cattle  furnish  a 
considerable  amount  of  leather  for  export. 

The  conditions  which  have  made  the  northern  part  a 
desert  have  also  given  to  the  state  its  greatest  resource — 
nitre.*  The  nitrate  occurs  in  the  northern  desert  region. 
The  crude  salt  is  crushed  and  partly  refined  at  the  mines, 
and  carried  by  rail  to  the  nearest  port.  The  working  of 
the  nitrate  beds  is  largely  carried  on  by  foreign  companies. 
Nearly  all  the  product  is  used  as  a  fertilizer  in  Germany, 
France,  and  Great  Britain.  Nitrate  constitutes  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  exports.  Iodine  and  bromine  are  also  ob- 
tained from  the  nitrates,  and  the  Chilean  product  yields 
nearly  all  the  world's  supply. 

Copper  is  extensively  mined  and,  next  to  the  nitrates,  is 
the  most  valuable  product.  Great  Britain  is  the  customer 
for  the  greater  part.  Coal  occurs  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  state,  and  is  mined  for  export  to  the  various  states  of 
the  Pacific  coast.  It  is  not  a  good  coal  for  iron  smelting, 
however,  and  about  three  times  as  much  is  imported  as  is 
exported.  A  considerable  part  of  the  imported  coal  comes 
from  Australia,  and  with  it  structural  steel  is  made  from 
pig-iron  that  is  also  imported. 

Chile  is  well  equipped  with  railways,  a  part  of  which 
has  been  built  and  are  operated  by  the  state.  The  most 
important  line  traverses  the  valley  between  the  Andes  and 

*  Nitre,  or  "nitrate,"  is  a  native  nitrate  of  potash,  or  nitrate  of  soda. 
The  latter,  commonly  called  cubic  nitre  or  Chile  saltpetre,  is  the  kind 
occurring  in  Chile.  Inasmuch  as  it  is  very  soluble,  a  plentiful  rainfall 
would  soon  leach  it  from  the  ground  and  carry  it  to  the  sea.  The  nitrate 
is  thought  to  be  of  vegetable  origin. 


SOUTH   AMERICA — THE  ANDEAN   STATES  283 

the  coast  ranges,  from  Concepcion  to  Valparaiso.     In  this 
region  are  most  of  the  manufacturing  enterprises. 

The  imports  are  chiefly  coal,  machinery,  textile  goods, 
and  sugar.  The  British  control  about  two -thirds  of  the 
foreign  trade ;  the  Germans  and  the  French  have  most  of 
the  remainder.  The  United  States  supplies  the  Chileans 
with  a  part  of  the  textiles,  a  considerable  quantity  of  Oregon 
pine,  and  practically  all  the  coal-oil  used. 

Valparaiso  is  the  chief  business  centre  of  the  Pacific 
coast  of  South  America.  Most  of  the  forwarding  business 
is  carried  on  by  British  and  German  merchants.  The 
transandine  railway,  now  about  com- 
pleted, will  make  it  one  of  the  most 
important  ports  of  the  world.  Santi- 
ago is  the  capital.  Concepcion  and 
Talca  are  important  centres  of  trade. 
Chilian  is  the  principal  cattle-mar- 
ket of  the  Pacific  coast  of  South 
America.  Copiapo  is  the  focal  point 
of  the  mining  interests.  Iquique  is  the  port  from  which 
about  all  the  nitrates  are  shipped.  Punta  Arenas,  one 
of  the  "  end  towns "  of  the  world,  is  an  ocean  post-office 
for  vessels  passing  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  It 
is  about  as  far  south  as  Calgary,  B.  C,  is  north. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DISCUSSION 

What  will  be  the  probable  effect  of  an  interoceanic  canal  on 
the  commerce  of  these  states  ? 

From  the  Abstract  of  Statistics  make  a  list  of  the  exports  from 
the  United  States  to  these  countries. 

From  the  statistics  of  trade  in  the  Statesman's  Year-Book  com- 
pare the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  that  of  other  countries 
in  these  states. 

How  have  race  characteristics  affected  the  commerce  and  devel- 
opment of  these  states  ? 


284  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

What  is  meant  by  peonage  ? 

What  cities  of  the  tropical  part  of  these  states  are  in  the  cli- 
mate of  the  temperate  zone  ? 

FOR    COLLATERAL  READING  AND   REFERENCE 

Carpenter's  South  America. 

Vincent's  Around  and  About  South  America. 

Fiske's  Discovery  of  America — Chapters  IX-X. 

Procure,  if  possible,  specimens  of  the  following  :  Cacao  and 
its  products,  ivory  nuts,  cinchona  bark,  crude  nitrate,  Panama 
straw,  iodine  (in  a  sealed  vial),  llama  wool,  alpaca  cloth,  Peru- 
vian cotton. 


CHAPTEK    XXIV 
SOUTH   AMERICA— THE   LOWLAND   STATES 

The  eastern  countries  of  South  America  are  mainly  low- 
land plains.  The  llanos  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  pampas  of 
Plate  (La  Plata)  River  are  grazing  lands.  The  silvas  of 
the  Amazon  are  forest-covered.  In  tropical  regions  the 
coast  plain  is  usually  very  unhealthful;  the  seaports  ex- 
cepted, most  of  the  cities  and  towns  are  therefore  built  on 
higher  land  beyond  the  coast-plain. 

Venezuela. — The  greater  part  of  Venezuela  is  a  region 
of  llanos,  or  grassy  plains,  shut  off  from  the  harbors  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  by  mountain-ranges.  On  account  of  their 
pleasant  climate  the  mountain-valleys  constitute  the  chief 
region  of  habitation.  The  plains  are  flooded  in  the  rainy 
season  and  sun-scorched  during  the  period  of  drought; 
they  are  therefore  unfit  for  human  habitation. 

Coffee  is  cultivated  in  the  montane  region  ;  and  cacao  in 
the  lower  coast  lands.  Almost  every  part  of  the  coast  low- 
lands is  fit  for  sugar  cultivation,  and  in  order  to  encourage 
this  industry,  the  importation  of  sugar  is  forbidden.  As  is 
usual  in  similar  cases,  the  domestic  sugar  is  poor  in  quality 
and  high  in  price.  Among  the  forest  products  rubber,  fus- 
tic, divi-divi,*  and  tonka  beans,  the  last  used  as  a  perfume, 
are  the  only  ones  of  value.  The  cattle  of  the  llanos,  the 
native  long-horns,  furnish  a  poor  quality  of  hide,  and  poorer 
beef.  A  few  thousand  head  are  shipped  yearly  down  the 
Orinoco  to  be  sent  to  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

*  The  pod  of  a  shrub  (Ccesalpina  coriaria) ;  it  contains  a  considerable 
proportion  of  tannin  and  is  used  for  tanning  leather. 

285 


286  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  placer  gold-mines  of  the  Yuruari  country,  a  region 
also  claimed  by  Great  Britain,  have  been  very  productive. 
Coal,  iron  ore,  and  asphaltum  are  abundant.  Concessions 
for  mining  the  two  last-named  have  been  granted  to  Amer- 
ican companies.  The  pearl-fisheries  around  Margarita  Isl- 
and, also  leased  to  a  foreign  company,  have  become  pro- 
ductive under  the  new  management. 

The  means  of  intercommunication  are  as  primitive  as 
those  of  Colombia.  Short  railways  extend  from  several 
seaports  to  the  regions  of  production,  and  from  these  coffee 
and  cacao  are  the  only  exports  of  importance.  The  Orinoco 
Eiver  is  the  natural  outlet  for  the  cattle-region,  but  the 
commerce  of  this  region  is  small.  The  lagoon  of  Mara- 
caibo  is  becoming  the  centre  of  a  rapidly  growing  commer- 
cial region. 

Caracas,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  receives  the  im- 
ports of  textiles,  domestic  wares,  flour,  and  petroleum  from 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  The  railway  to  its 
port,  La  Guaira,  is  a  remarkable  work  of  engineering. 
Puerto  Cabello,  the  most  important  port,  receives  the  trade 
of  Valencia.  From  Maracaibo,  the  port  on  the  lagoon  of 
the  same  name,  is  shipped  the  Venezuelan  coffee.  Oiudad 
Bolivar  is  the  river-port  of  the  Orinoco  and  an  important 
rubber-market. 

The  Guianas. — The  surface  conditions  and  climate  of 
the  Guianas  resemble  those  of  Venezuela.  The  native 
products  are  also  much  the  same,  but  good  business  organ- 
ization has  made  the  countries  bearing  the  general  name 
highly  productive.  For  the  greater  part,  the  coast-plain  is 
the  region  of  cultivation.  Sugar  is  still  the  most  impor- 
tant crop;  but  on  account  of  the  fierce  competition  of  beet- 
sugar,  on  many  of  the  plantations  cane-sugar  cultivation  is 
unprofitable  and  has  been  abandoned  for  that  of  rice, 
cacao,  and  tobacco.     Great  Britain,  Holland,  and  France 


PREPARING   THE   BEANS    FOR   SHIPMENT 


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MAKING  CHOCOLATE 


288  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

possess  the  country.  The  divisions  are  known  respec- 
tively as  British  Guiana,  Surinam,  and  Cayenne,  and  the 
trade  of  each  accrues  to  the  mother-country.  British 
Guiana  is  noted  quite  as  much  for  its  gold-fields  on 
the  Venezuelan  border  (Cuyuni  River)  as  for  its  vege- 
table products.  Georgetoivn,  better  known  by  the  name 
of  the  surrounding  district,  Demerara,  is  the  focal  point 
of  business.  New  Amsterdam  is  also  a  port  of  consid- 
erable trade.  The  gold-mining  interests  centre  at  Bar- 
tica. 

Surinam,  in  addition  to  its  export  of  vegetable  products, 
contains  rich  gold-mines,  and  these  contribute  a  consider- 
able revenue.  Paramaribo  is  the  port  and  centre  of  trade. 
Phosphates  and  gold  are  among  the  important  exports  of 
Cayenne,  whose  port  bears  the  same  name. 

Brazil. — This  state,  nearly  the  size  of  the  United  States, 
comprises  about  half  the  area  of  South  America.  Much  of 
it,  including  the  greater  part  of  the  Amazon  River  basin, 
is  unfit  for  the  growth,  of  food-stuffs. 

There  are  three  regions  of  production.  The  Amazon 
forests  yield  the  greater  part  of  the  world's  rubber  sup- 
ply. The  middle  coast  region  has  various  agricultural 
products,  of  which  cotton  and  cane-sugar  are  the  most  im- 
portant. From  the  southern  region  comes  two-thirds  of 
the  world's  coffee-crop.  There  are  productive  gold-mines 
in  the  state  of  Minas  Geraes,  but  this  region  is  best  known 
for  the  "  old  mine  "  diamonds,  the  finest  produced. 

The  Amazon  rubber-crop  includes  not  only  the  crude 
gum  obtained  in  Brazil,  but  a  considerable  part,  if  not  the 
most,  of  the  crop  from  the  surrounding  states.  The  bifur- 
cating Cassiquiare,  which  flows  both  iuto  Amazonian  and 
Orinocan  waters,  drains  a  very  large  area  of  forest  which 
yields  the  best  rubber  known.  The  yield  of  1901  aggre- 
gated about   one  hundred  and   thirty  million  pounds,  of 


SOUTH   AMERICA — THE   LOWLAND   STATES  289 

which  about  one-half  was  sold  in  the  United  States,  one- 
third  in  Liverpool,  and  the  rest  mainly  in  Antwerp  and 
Le  Havre.  The  price  of  rubber  is  fixed  in  New  York  and 
London. 

The  cotton  and  cane-sugar  are  grown  in  the  middle 
coast  region.  The  cotton  industry  bids  fair  to  add  materi- 
ally to  the  prosperity  of  the  state.  A  considerable  part  of 
the  raw  cotton  is  exported,  but  the  reserve  is  sufficient  to 
keep  ten  thousand  looms  busy.  About  three  hundred  and 
fifty  million  pounds  of  the  raw  sugar  is  purchased  by  the 
refineries  of  the  United  States,  and  much  of  the  remainder 
by  British  dealers. 

The  seeds  of  a  species  of  myrtle  (Bertholletia  excelsa) 
furnish  the  Brazil  nuts  of  commerce,  large  quantities  of 
which  are  shipped  to  Europe  and  the  United  States.* 
Manganese  ore  is  also  an  important  export,  and  Great 
Britain  purchases  nearly  all  of  it. 

The  coffee-crop  of  the  southern  states  is  the  largest  in  the 
world ;  and  about  eight  hundred  million  pounds  are  landed 
yearly  at  the  ports  of  the  United  States.  The  coffee-crop, 
more  than  any  other  factor,  has  made  the  great  prosperity 
of  the  state ;  for  while  the  rubber  yield  employs  compara- 
tively few  men  and  yields  but  little  public  revenue,  the 
coffee-crop  has  brought  into  Brazil  an  average  of  about 
fifty  million  dollars  a  year  for  three-quarters  of  a  century. 

Cattle  products  also  afford  a  considerable  profit  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  coffee -region.  The  hides  and  tallow  are 
shipped  to  the  United  States.  For  want  of  refrigerating 
facilities,  most  of  the  beef  is  "  jerked  "  (or  sun-dried),  and 
shipped  in  this  form  to  Cuba. 

The  facilities  for  transportation,  the  rivers  excepted,  are 
poor.  The  Amazon  is  navigable  for  ocean  steamships 
nearly  to  the  junction  of  the  Ucayale.     The  Paraguay  af- 

*  The  pericarp  or  pod  contains  about  twenty- four  prismatic-shaped  nuts. 


290  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

fords  a  navigable  waterway  to  the  mouth  of  Plate  Kiver. 
Rapids  and  falls  obstruct  most  of  the  rivers  at  the 
junction  of  the  Brazilian  plateau  and  the  low  plains,  but 
these  streams  afford  several  thousand  miles  of  navigable 
waters  both  above  and  below  the  falls. 

Nearly  all  the  railways  are  plantation  roads,  extending 
from  the  various  ports  to  regions  of  production  a  few 
miles  inland.  The  most  important  railway  development 
is  that  in  the  vicinity  of  Rio,  where  short  local  roads  to  the 
suburban  settlements  and  the  coffee-plantations  converge 
at  the  harbor.  About  fourteen  thousand  miles  of  railway 
are  completed  and  under  actual  construction.  A  consider- 
able part  of  the  mileage  is  owned  and  operated  by  the 
state,  and  it  has  become  the  policy  of  the  latter  to  control 
its  roads  and  to  encourage  immigration.  One  result  of 
this  policy  is  the  increasing  number  of  German  and  Italian 
colonies,  that  establish  settlements  in  every  district  pene- 
trated by  a  new  road. 

In  1900  the  total  foreign  trade  aggregated  upward  of 
two  hundred  and  seventy-five  million  dollars.  The  imports 
consist  of  cotton  and  woollen  manufactures,  structural  steel 
and  machinery,  preserved  fish  and  meats,  and  coal-oil. 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  the  United  States,  and  France 
have  nearly  all  the  trade.  The  United  States  sells  to 
Brazil  textiles  and  coal-oil  to  the  amount  of  over  eleven 
million  dollars  yearly,  and  buys  of  the  country  coffee  and 
rubber  to  the  amount  of  six  times  as  much. 

Rio  de  Janeiro ,  commonly  called  "  Rio,"  is  the  capital 
and  commercial  centre.  Its  harbor  is  one  of  the  best  in 
South  America.  Formerly  all  the  coffee  was  shipped  from 
this  port,  but  the  greater  part  now  goes  from  Santos.  Porto 
Alegre,  the  port  of  the  German  colonies,  has  also  a  grow- 
ing export  trade. 

Bahia,  Pernambuco  (or  Recife),  Maceio,  and  Gear  a  are  the 


SOUTH   AMERICA — THE  LOWLAND   STATES  291 

markets  for  cotton,  sugar,  and  tobacco,  much  of  which  is 
shipped  to  other  Brazilian  ports  for  home  consumption. 
Para  and  Ceard  monopolize  nearly  all  the  rubber  trade. 
The  position  of  Manaos,  at  the  confluence  of  several  rivers, 
makes  it  one  of  the  most  important  markets  of  the  Amazon 
basin,  and  most  of  the  crude  rubber  is  first  collected  there 
for  shipment.  Cuyaba  is  the  commercial  centre  of  the 
mining  region ;  its  outlet  is  the  Paraguay  River,  and 
Buenos  Aires  profits  by  its  trade. 

Argentina  and  the  Plate  River  Countries.— These 
states  are  situated  in  a  latitude  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
United  States.  The  entire  area  from  the  coast  to  the  slopes 
of  the  Andes  is  a  vast  prairie- region.  As  a  result  of  posi- 
tion, climate,  and  surface  the  agricultural  industries  are  the 
same  as  in  the  United  States — grazing  and  wheat-growing. 

Cattle-growing  is  the  chief  employment,  and  the  cost  per 
head  of  rearing  stock  is  practically  nothing.  For  want  of 
better  means  of  transportation  the  shipments  of  live  beef 
are  not  very  heavy ;  the  quality  of  the  beef  is  poor,  and 
until  recently  there  have  been  no  adequate  facilities  for 
getting  it  to  market.*  A  small  amount  of  refrigerator 
beef  and  a  large  amount  of  jerked  beef  are  exported,  how- 
ever. Near  the  markets,  there  are  large  plants  in  which  the 
hides,  horns,  tallow,  and  meat  are  utilized — the  last  being- 
converted  to  the  famous  "beef  extract,"  which  finds  a 
market  all  over  the  world. 

The  sheep  industry  is  on  a  much  better  business  basis. 
Both  the  wool  and  the  mutton  have  been  improved  by 
cross-breeding  with  good  stock.     As  a  result  the  trade  in 

*  The  cattle  for  Cuba  and  Brazil  must  be  shipped  in  open  pens  in  cross- 
ing the  tropics.  With  the  exports  for  Europe  the  case  is  different.  If  it 
is  summer  at  the  one  port  it  is  winter  at  the  other,  but  it  is  always  summer 
in  the  tropics,  and  cattle- ships  fit  for  one  zone  are  not  fit  for  the  other — 
hence  the  great  difficulties  in  shipment  of  live  animals  to  Europe. 


292  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

mutton  and  wool  has  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds ;  and 
nearly  three  million  sheep  carcasses  are  landed  jat  the  other 
ports  of  Brazil,  at  Cuba,  and  at  various  European  states. 
The  wool  is  bought  mainly  by  Germany  and  France,  but 
the  United  States  is  a  heavy  purchaser.  The  quality  of 
the  fibre,  formerly  very  poor,  year  by  year  is  improving. 

Wheat,  the  staple  product,  is  grown  mainly  within  a  ra- 
dius of  four  hundred  miles  around  the  mouth  of  Plate  River. 
The  area  of  cultivation  is  increasing  as  the  facilities  for 
transportation  are  extended  and,  little  by  little,  is  encroach- 
ing on  the  grazing  lands.  The  wheat  industry  is  carried  on 
very  largely  by  German  and  Italian  colonists.  Flax,  grown 
for  the  seed,  is  a  very  large  export  crop.  Maize,  partly 
for  export  and  partly  for  home  consumption,  is  also  grown. 

The  timber  resources,  chiefly  in  Paraguay  and  the  Gran 
Chaco,  are  very  great,  but  for  want  of  means  of  transporta- 
tion the  timber-trade  cannot  successfully  compete  with  that 
of  Central  America  and  Mexico.  Workable  gold  and  sil- 
ver ores  are  abundant  along  the  Andean  cordillera ;  gold, 
silver,  and  copper  are  exported  to  Europe.  A  poor  quality 
of  lignite  occurs  in  several  provinces,  but  there  are  no 
available  mines  yielding  coal  suitable  for  making  steam. 
There  are  petroleum  wells  near  Mendoza. 

Most  of  the  manufactures  pertain  to  the  preparation 
of  cattle  products,  although  a  considerable  amount  of 
coarse  textiles  are  made  in  the  larger  cities  from  the  native 
cotton  and  wool.  Hats,  paper  (made  from  grass),  and 
leather  goods  are  also  made.  In  general,  all  manufactures 
are  hampered  by  the  difficulties  of  getting  good  fuel  at  a 
low  price. 

Transportation  is  carried  on  along  Plate  River  and  the 
lower  parts  of  its  tributaries.  The  railway  has  become  the 
chief  factor  in  the  carriage  of  commodities,  however,  and 
the  railways  of  Argentina  have  been  developed  on  the 


SOUTH   AMERICA — THE   LOWLAND  STATES 


293 


plans  of  North  American  roads.  About  twelve  thousand 
miles  are  in  actual  operation,  one  of  which  is  a  transcon- 
tinental line,  about  completed  between  Buenos  Aires  and 
Valparaiso.  Electric  railways  have  become  very  popular, 
and  the  mileage  is  rapidly  increasing. 

The  import  trade,  consisting  of  textile  goods,  machinery, 
steel,  and  petroleum,  is  carried  on  with  Great  Britain, 
France,  Germany,  Belgium  (mainly  transit  trade),  the 
United  States,  and  Italy.  The  competition  between  the 
European  states  for  this 
trade  is  very  strong,  and 
not  a  little  has  been  ac- 
quired at  the  expense  of 
the  United  States,  whose 
trade  has  not  materially 
increased. 

Buenos  Aires  is  the 
financial  centre  of  this 
part  of  South  America. 
Among  its  industries  is 
the  largest  meat- refrig- 
erating plant  in  the  world. 
The  harbor  at  La  Plata  is 
excellent  and  has  drawn 
a  considerable  part  of  the 
foreign  trade  from  Buenos 

Aires.  Bosario,  Cordoba,  Santa  Fe,  and  Parana  are  the 
markets  of  extensive  farming  regions.  Mendoza  is  the 
focal  point  of  the  mining  interests. 

Paraguay  has  a  large  forest  area,  but  for  want  of 
means  of  transportation  it  is  without  value.  Even  the 
railway  companies  find  it  cheaper  to  buy  their  ties  in  the 
United  States  and  Australia,  rather  than  to  procure  them 
in  Paraguay.      In  spite  of  the  extent  of  good  land,  the 


.       1     - 

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\    SOUTH  AMERICA  fj 

k 

AREA  OF  THE 

•el 

PRODUCTION  AND 

1 

CONSUMPTION  OF 

MATE. 

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T 

IX. 

«* 

K,fN.en 

* 

294  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

wheat  and  much  of  the  bread  stuffs  are  purchased  from 
Argentina.  Tobacco  and  mate  are  the  only  export  crops, 
and  they  have  but  little  value.  The  Parana  and  Paraguay 
Rivers  are  the  only  commercial  outlet  of  the  state. 

Uruguay. — Owing  to  its  foreign  population  Uruguay  is 
becoming  a  rich  country.  The  native  cattle  have  been 
improved  by  cross-breeding  with  European  stock,  and  the 
state  has  become  one  of  the  foremost  cattle  and  sheep 
ranges  of  the  world.  The  value  of  animal  products  is  not 
far  from  forty  million  dollars  yearly.  These  go  mainly  to 
Europe,  and  so  also  does  the  wheat-crop. 

France  and  Argentina  purchase  most  of  the  exports  and 
Great  Britain  supplies  most  of  the  textiles  and  machinery 
imported.  The  trade  of  the  United  States  is  about  one- 
fourth  that  of  Great  Britain.  Montevideo  is  the  chief  mar- 
ket and  port.  At  Fray  Bentos  is  one  of  the  largest  plants 
in  the  world  for  the  manufacture  of  cattle  products. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DISCUSSION 

What  kind  of  commerce  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  the 
various  ports  along  the  Spanish  Main? 

What  advantages  has  the  American  fruit-shipper,  trading  at 
South  American  ports,  over  his  European  competitor? 

What  is  meant  by  "horse  latitudes,"  and  what  was  the  origin 
of  the  name  ? 

In  what  way  may  the  opening  of  an  interoceanic  canal  affect 
the  coffee-trade  of  Brazil  ? — the  nitrate  trade  of  Chile? 

FOR  COLLATERAL  READING  AND  REFERENCE 

From  the  Abstract  of  Statistics  find  the  exports  of  the  United 
States  to  each  of  these  countries. 

From  the  Statesman's  Year-Book  compare  the  trade  of  the 
United  States  in  each  of  these  countries  with  that  of  Great 
Britain,  France,  Germany,  and  Italy. 

If  possible,  obtain  specimens  of  the  following:  Crude  rubber, 
pampas  grass,  Brazil  nuts  (in  pod),  and  raw  coffee  of  several 
grades  for  comparison  with  Java  and  Mocha  coffees. 


CHAPTEB  XXV 
EUROPE— GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   GERMANY 

Almost  all  the  commercial  activity  of  Europe  is  south  of 
the  parallel  and  west  of  the  meridian  of  St.  Petersburg. 
Most  of  the  great  industries  are  controlled  by  Germanic 
and  Latin  peoples,  and  among  these  Great  Britain  and 
Germany  stand  first. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. — The  United  Kingdom,  or 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  are  commonly  known  as  the 
British  Isles.  The  British  Empire  consists  of  the  United 
Kingdom  and  its  colonial  possessions ;  it  includes  also  a 
large  number  of  islands  occupied  as  coaling  stations  and 
for  strategic  purposes.  All  told,  the  empire  embraces  about 
one-seventh  of  the  land  area  of  the  world  and  about  one- 
fourth  its  population. 

The  wonderful  power  and  great  commercial  development 
is  due  not  only  to  conditions  of  geographic  environment 
but  also  to  the  intelligence  of  a  people  who  have  adjusted 
themselves  to  those  conditions.  The  insular  position  of 
the  United  Kingdom  has  given  it  natural  protection,  and 
for  more  than  eight  hundred  years  there  has  been  no  suc- 
cessful invasion  by  a  foreign  power.  Its  commercial  posi- 
tion is  both  natural  and  artificial.  It  has  utilized  the  mar- 
kets to  the  east  and  south,  and  has  founded  great  countries 
which  it  supplies  with  manufactured  products. 

The  position  of  the  kingdom  with  respect  to  climate  is 
fortunate.  The  movement  of  the  Gulf  Stream  on  the  Ameri- 
can coast  carries  a  large  volume  of  water  into  the  latitude 

295 


EUROPE— GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   GERMANY  297 

of  the  prevailing  westerly  winds,  and  these  in  turn  carry 
warm  water  to  every  part  of  the  coast  of  the  islands.  As 
a  result,  the  harbors  of  the  latter  are  never  obstructed  by 
ice ;  those  of  the  Labrador  coast,  situated  in  the  same  lati- 
tude, are  blocked  nearly  half  the  year. 

The  high  latitude  of  the  islands  is  an  advantage  so  far 
as  the  production  of  food-stuffs  is  concerned.  The  sum- 
mer days  in  the  latitude  of  Liverpool  are  very  nearly 
eighteen  hours  in  length,  and  this  fact  together  with  the 
mild  winters,  adds  very  largely  to  the  food-producing 
power  of  the  islands. 

The  highlands  afford  considerable  grazing.  Great  care 
is  taken  in  improving  the  stock,  both  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
In  the  north  the  cattle  are  bred  mainly  as  meat  producers ; 
in  the  south  for  dairy  products.  Durham,  Alderney,  and 
Jersey  stock  are  exported  to  both  Americas  for  breeding 
purposes.  The  sheep  of  the  highlands  produce  the  heavy, 
coarse  wool  of  which  the  well  known  "cheviot"  and 
"frieze"  textiles  are  made.  Elsewhere  they  are  bred 
for  mutton,  of  which  the  "South  Down"  variety  is  an 
example. 

The  lowland  regions  yield  grain  abundantly  where  culti- 
vated. The  average  yield  per  acre  is  about  double  that  of 
the  United  States,  and  is  surpassed  by  that  of  Denmark 
only.  Both  Ireland  and  England  are  famous  for  fine  dairy 
products.  These  are  becoming  the  chief  resource  of  the 
former  country,  which  is  practically  without  the  coal  nec- 
essary for  extensive  manufacture.  The  fishing-grounds 
form  an  important  food  resource. 

The  cultivated  lands  do  not  supply  the  food  needed  for 
consumption.  The  grain-crop  lasts  scarcely  three  months; 
the  meat-crop  but  little  longer.  Bread-stuffs  from  the 
United  States  and  India,  and  meats  from  the  United 
States,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand  make  up  the  shortage. 


298  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  annual  import  of  food-stuffs  amounts  to  more  than 
fifty  dollars  per  capita. 

The  growing  of  wool  and  flax  for  cloth-making  became 
an  industry  of  great  importance  just  after  the  accession  of 
Henry  VII.  With  the  advent  of  peace,  it  became  possible 
to  manufacture  into  cloth  the  fibres  that  before  had  been 
sent  for  that  purpose  to  Flanders.  The  utilization  of  the 
coal  and  the  iron  ore  years  afterward  brought  about  an 
economic  revolution  that  was  intensified  by  the  invention 
of  the  steam-engine  and  the  power-loom. 

These  quickly  brought  the  country  into  the  foremost 
rank  as  a  manufacturing  centre.  Moreover,  they  also  de- 
manded the  foreign  markets  that  have  made  the  country  a 
maritime  power  as  well — for  an  insular  country  must  also 
have  the  ships  with  which  to  carry  its  merchandise  to  its 
markets. 

The  development  of  the  manufactures,  therefore,  is  in- 
separably connected  with  that  of  the  mineral  and  metal 
industries.  From  very  early  times  the  metal  deposits  of 
the  country  have  been  a  source  of  power.  Copper  and  tin 
were  used  by  the  aboriginal  Britons  long  before  Caesar's 
reconnaissance  of  the  islands,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
the  Bronze  Period  was  the  natural  development  that  re- 
sulted from  the  discovery  of  these  metals. 

Coal  occurs  in  various  fields  that  extend  from  the 
River  Clyde  to  the  River  Severn.  The  annual  output 
of  these  mines  at  the  close  of  the  century  was  about 
two  hundred  and  twenty-five  million  tons.  In  the  past 
century  the  inroads  upon  the  visible  supply  were  so  great 
that  the  output  in  the  near  future  will  be  considerably 
lessened.  Not  far  from  one-sixth  of  the  output  is  sold  to 
consumers  in  Russia  and  the  Mediterranean  countries,  but 
a  growing  sentiment  to  forbid  any  sale  of  coal  to  foreign 
buyers  is  taking  shape. 


3°  longitude    6°  West     from  4°  Hreenwlch    2 


BRITISH  ISLES. 


Railways: Cables  :~ 

Steamship  Routes  : 

SCALE  OF  STATUTE   MILES. 


Berwick^  ^>WS      •£<     ^     l'/ 
lisle^Sunderlaiid  y 


300  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Iron  ores  are  fairly  abundant,  but  the  hematite  required 
for  the  best  Bessemer  steel  is  limited  to  the  region  about 
Manchester  and  Birmingham.  The  shortage  of  this  ore 
has  become  so  apparent  within  recent  years  that  Great 
Britain  has  become  a  purchaser  of  pig-iron  from  the 
United  States.  The  coal  in  the  Clyde  basin  is  employed 
mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  railway  iron,  steamship 
material,  and  rolling  stock.  The  manufacture  of  Bes- 
semer steel  is  gradually  moving  to  the  vicinity  of  South 
Wales,  at  the  ports  of  which  foreign  pig-iron  can  be  most 
cheaply  landed.  In  west-central  England  the  several  coal- 
fields form  a  single  centre  of  manufacture,  where  are 
located  some  of  the  largest  woollen  and  cotton  mills  in 
Europe.  It  also  includes  the  plants  for  the  manufacture  of 
machinery,  cutlery,  and  pottery. 

The  import  trade  of  Great  Britain  consists  mainly  of 
food-stuffs  and  raAV  materials.*  Of  the  latter,  cotton  is 
by  far  the  most  important.  Most  of  it  comes  from  the 
United  States,  but  the  Nile  delta,  Brazil,  the  Dekkan  of 
India,  the  Iran  plateau,  and  the  Piura  Valley  of  Peru  send 
portions,  each  region  having  fibre  of  specific  qualities  de- 
signed for  specific  uses.  The  native  wool  clip  forms  only 
a  small  part  of  the  amount  used  in  manufacture.  The 
remainder,  more  than  three  million  pounds,  comes  from 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa. 

The  supply  of  flax  is  small,  and  100,000  tons  are  im- 
ported to  meet  the  wants  of  the  mills.  The  greater  part 
is  purchased  in  Russia,  but  the  finer  quality  is  imported 
from  Belgium.  Jute  is  purchased  from  India  and  manu- 
factured into  burlap  and  rugs. 

But  little  available  standing  timber  remains,  and  lumber 

*  For  this  reason  Great  Britain  is  practically  a  free-trade  country.  A 
protective  tariff  on  imported  food-stnffs  and  materials  to  be  manufactured 
would  hurt  rather  than  protect  British  industries. 


EUROPE — GREAT   BRITAIN   AND   GERMANY  301 

must,  therefore,  be  imported.  The  pine  is  purchased 
mainly  in  Sweden,  Norway,  Canada,  and  the  United  States. 
A  considerable  amount  of  wood-pulp  is  imported  from  Can- 
ada for  paper-making.  Mahogany  for  ornamental  manu- 
factures is  obtained  from  Africa  and  British  Honduras. 
Oak,  and  the  woods  for  interior  finish,  are  purchased 
largely  from  Canada  and  the  United  States. 

The  export  trade  of  Great  Britain  consists  almost  wholly 
of  the  articles  manufactured  with  British  coal  as  the 
power.  These  are  made  from  the  raw  materials  purchased 
abroad,  and  the  stamp  of  the  British  craftsman  is  a  guar- 
antee of  excellence  and  honesty.  Of  the  total  export  trade, 
amounting  yearly  to  about  one  billion,  two  hundred  million 
dollars,  nearly  one-third  consists  of  cotton,  woollen,  linen, 
and  jute  textiles;  one-fifth  consists  of  iron  and  steel  manu- 
factured stuffs  made  from  British  ores.  About  one-third 
goes  to  the  colonies  of  the  mother-country,  with  whom  she 
keeps  in  close  touch  ;  Germany,  the  United  States,  and 
the  South  American  states  are  the  chief  foreign  buyers. 

For  the  handling  and  carriage  of  these  goods  there  is  an 
admirable  system  of  railways  reaching  from  every  part  of 
the  interior  to  the  numerous  ports.  The  rolling  stock  and 
the  locomotives  are  not  nearly  so  heavy  as  those  used  in 
the  United  States  ;  the  railway  beds  and  track  equipment, 
on  the  whole,  are  probably  the  best  in  the  world.  Freight 
rates  are  considerably  higher  than  on  the  corresponding 
classes  of  merchandise  in  the  United  States.  The  public 
highways  are  most  excellent,  but  the  means  of  street  traffic 
in  the  cities  are  very  poor. 

The  harbor  facilities  at  the  various  ports  are  of  the  best. 
The  docks  and  basins  are  usually  arranged  so  that  while 
the  import  goods  are  being  landed  the  export  stuffs  are 
made  ready  to  be  loaded.  The  facilities  for  the  rapid 
transfer  of  freights  have  been   improved   by  the   recon- 


302  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

structiou  of  the  various  river  estuaries  so  as  to  make  them 
ship-chaimels.  The  estuaries  of  the  Clyde,  Tyne,  and 
Mersey  have  been  thus  improved,  while  Manchester  has 
been  made  a  seaport  by  an  artificial  canal.  The  British 
merchant  marine  is  the  largest  in  the  world,  and  about 
ninety  per  cent,  of  the  vessels  are  steamships. 

London  is  the  capital ;  it  is  also  one  of  the  first  commer- 
cial and  financial  centres  of  the  world.  The  Thames  has 
not  a  sufficient  depth  of  water  for  the  largest  liners,  and 
these  dock  usually  about  twenty  miles  below  the  city. 
The  colonial  commerce  at  London  is  very  heavy,  especially 
the  India  traffic,  and  it  is  mainly  for  this  trade  that  the 
British  acquired  the  control  of  the  Suez  Canal. 

Liverpool  is  one  of  the  most  important  ports  of  Europe, 
and  receives  most  of  the  American  traffic.  The  White 
Star  and  Cunard  Lines  have  their  terminals  at  this  port. 

Southampton  is  also  a  port  which  receives  a  large  share 
of  American  traffic.  The  American  and  several  foreign 
steamship  lines  discharge  at  that  place.  Hull  and  Shields 
have  a  considerable  part  of  the  European  traffic.  Glasgow 
is  one  of  the  foremost  centres  of  steel  ship-building.  Car- 
diff and  Sioansea  are  ports  connected  with  the  coal  and 
iron  trade.  Queenstoivn  is  a  calling  point  for  transatlantic 
liners. 

Manchester  is  both  a  cotton  port  and  a  great  market  for 
the  cotton  textiles  made  in  the  nearby  towns  of  the  Lanca- 
shire coal-field.  Leeds  and  Bradford,  and  the  towns  about 
them  are  the  chief  centres  of  woollen  manufacture.  Wil- 
ton and  Kidderminster  are  famous  for  carpets.  Birming- 
ham is  the  centre  of  the  steel  manufactures.  Sheffield, 
has  a  world-wide  reputation  for  cutlery.  In  and  near  the 
Staffordshire  district  are  the  potteries  that  have  made  the 
names  of  Worcester,  Coalport,  Doulton,  Copeland,  and 
Jackfield  famous.     Belfast  is  noted  for  its  linen  textiles, 


EUROPE — GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   GERMANY  303 

and  also  for  some  of  the  largest  steamships  afloat  that 
have  been  built  in  its  yards.  Dundee  is  the  chief  centre 
of  jute  manufacture. 

The  German  Empire. — The  German  Empire  consists 
of  the  kingdoms  of  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wiir- 
temburg,  together  with  a  number  of  small  states.  The 
"  free  "  cities  of  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Liibeck,  whose  in- 
dependence was  purchased  in  feudal  times,  are  also  incor- 
porated within  the  empire.  The  present  empire  was 
formed  in  1871,  at  the  close  of  the  war  between  Germany 
and  France.  The  merging  of  the  states  into  the  empire 
was  designed  as  a  political  step,  but  it  proved  a  great  in- 
dustrial revolution  as  well. 

The  plain  of  Europe  which  slopes  to  the  north  and  the 
Baltic  Sea,  the  flood-plains  of  the  rivers  excepted,  is  feebly 
productive  of  grain.  It  is  a  fine  grazing  region,  however, 
and  the  dairy  products  are  of  the  best  quality.  Among 
European  states  Russia  alone  surpasses  Germany  in  the 
number  of  cattle  grown.  The  province  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein  is  famous  the  world  over  for  its  fine  cattle.  Cavalry 
horses  are  a  special  feature  of  the  lowland  plain,  and  the 
government  is  the  chief  buyer.  The  wool  product  has 
hitherto  been  important,  but  the  sheep  ranges  are  being 
turned  into  crop  lands,  on  account  of  the  increase  of  popu- 
lation in  the  industrial  regions. 

The  midland  belt,  however,  between  the  coast-plain  and 
the  mountains,  is  the  chief  food-producing  part  of  Ger- 
many. Bye  and  wheat  are  grown  wherever  possible,  but 
the  entire  grain-crop  is  consumed  in  about  eight  months. 
The  United  States,  Argentina,  and  Bussia  supply  the 
wheat  and  flour ;  Bussia  supplies  the  rye. 

The  sugar-beet  is  by  far  the  most  important  export  crop, 
and  Germany  produces  yearly  about  one  million,  eight 
hundred   thousand   tons,  or  nearly  as  much  as  Austria- 


EUKOPE — GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   GERMANY         305 

Hungary  and  France  combined.  This  industry  is  encour- 
aged by  a  bounty  paid  on  all  sugar  exported.*  A  consid- 
erable amount  of  raw  beet-sugar  is  sold  to  the  refineries  of 
the  United  States ;  Great  Britain  also  is  a  heavy  buyer. 
The  home  consumption  is  relatively  small,  being  about 
one-third  per  capita  that  of  the  United  States.  Silesia,  the 
Rhine  Valley,  and  the  lowlands  of  the  Hartz  Mountains 
are  the  most  important  centres  of  the  sugar  industry. 

Germany  is  rich  in  minerals. f  Zinc  occurs  in  abun- 
dance, and  the  mines  of  Silesia  furnish  the  world's  chief 
supply.  Most  of  the  lithographic  stone  in  use  is  obtained 
in  Bavaria.  Copper  and  silver  are  mined  in  the  Erz  and 
Hartz  Mountains.  During  the  sixteenth  century  the  mines 
of  the  latter  region  brought  the  states  then  forming  Ger- 
many into  commercial  prominence  and  thereby  diverted 
the  trade  between  the  North  and  Mediterranean  Seas  to 
the  valleys  of  the  Rhine  and  Elbe  Rivers. 

These  two  metal  products  made  Germany  a  great 
financial  power.  The  Franco-Prussfan  War  added  to 
Germany  the  food-producing  lands  of  the  Rhine  and 
Moselle,  and  the  provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  At 
the  same  time  it  gave  the  Germans  organization  by  weld- 
ing the  various  German  states  into  an  empire.  As  a 
result  there  has  been  an  industrial  development  that  has 
placed  Germany  in  the  class  with  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain. 

By  unifying  the  various  interstate  systems  of  commerce 
and  transportation,  the  iron  and  steel  industry  has  greatly 
expanded.  The  chief  centre  of  this  industry  is  the  valley 
of  the  Ruhr  River.  Coal-measures  underlie  an  area  some- 
what larger  than  the  basin  of  the  river.     To  the  industrial 

*  This  is  equivalent  to  the  imposition  of  a  tax  on  all  the  sugar  consumed 
at  home. 

f  Most  of  the  lithographic  stone  is  obtained  at  Solnhofen 


306  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

centres  of  this  valley  iron  ore  is  brought  by  the  Rhine  and 
Moselle  barges  from  Alsace-Lorraine  and  Luxemburg,  and 
also  from  the  Hartz  Mountains. 

In  the  importance  and  extent  of  manufactures,  Germany 
ranks  next  to  Great  Britain  among  European  states,  and 
because  of  the  extent  of  their  coal-fields  the  Germans  seem 
destined  in  time  to  surpass  their  rivals.  The  manufacture 
of  textiles  is  one  of  the  leading  industries,  and,  next  to 
Great  Britain,  Germany  is  the  heaviest  purchaser  of  raw 
cotton  from  the  United  States.  The  Rhine  district  is  the 
chief  centre  of  cotton  textile  manufacture.  Raw  cotton  is 
delivered  to  the  mills  by  the  Rhine  boats,  and  these  carry 
the  manufactured  product  to  the  seaboard.  Central  and 
South  America  are  the  chief  purchasers. 

Woollen  goods  are  also  extensively  manufactured,  the 
industiy  being  in  the  region  that  produces  Saxony  wool. 
In  Silesia  and  the  lower  Rhine  provinces  there  are  also 
extensive  woollen  textile  manufactures,  but  the  goods  are 
made  mainly  from  imported  wool.  Argentina  and  the  other 
Plate  River  countries  are  the  chief  buyers  of  these  goods. 
There  is  a  considerable  linen  manufacture  from  German- 
grown  flax,  and  silk-making,  mainly  from  raw  silk  im- 
ported from  Italy. 

The  great  expansion  and  financial  success  of  the  manu- 
facturing enterprises  is  due  very  largely  to  the  admirable 
organization  of  the  lines  of  transportation.  The  rivers, 
with  their  connecting  canals,  supplement  the  railways  in- 
stead of  competing  with  them.  They  are  utilized  mainly 
for  slow  freights,  while  the  railways  carry  the  traffic  that  de- 
mands speed.  The  possibilities  of  both  inland  water-ways 
and  railway  transportation  have  been  utilized  by  the  Ger- 
mans to  the  utmost,  with  the  result  of  a  very  Ioav  rate  both 
for  coal  and  ore,  and  for  structural  iron  and  steel.  The 
latter  is  carried  from  the  various  steel-making  plants  in 


LUBECK 


BREMEN 


308  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

the  Kuhr  Valley  to  the  seaboard  at  a  rate  of  eighty  to 
ninety  cents  per  ton.* 

All  this  has  resulted  in  a  wonderful  commercial  expan- 
sion of  the  empire.  In  1875  Germany  was  neither  a 
maritime  nor  a  naval  power.  At  the  close  of  the  century 
it  ranked  about  with  the  United  States  as  a  naval  power, 
and  far  surpassed  that  country  in  the  tonnage  of  merchant 
marine.  The  German  steamship  fleet  includes  the  largest 
and  fastest  vessels  afloat. 

German  trade  may  be  summed  up  as  an  export  of  manu- 
factured goods  and  an  import  of  food-stuffs  and  raw  ma- 
terials. At  the  close  of  the  century  the  annual  movement 
of  industrial  products  amounted  to  nearly  two  and  one-half 
billion  dollars.  About  one-half  the  trade  of  the  empire  is 
carried  on  with  Great  Britain,  the  United  States,  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  Russia.  A  large  part  of  the  foreign  trade 
is  carried  on  through  the  ports  of  Belgium  and  Holland. 

Berlin,  the  capital,  is  one  of  the  few  cities  having  a 
population  of  more  than  one  million.  It  is  not  only  a 
great  centre  of  trade,  but  it  is  one  of  the  leading  money- 
markets  of  Europe;  it  is  also  the  chief  railway  centre. 
Hamburg  and  Bremen  are  important  ports  of  German- 
American  trade,  the  former  being  the  largest  seaport  of 
continental  Europe.  Breslau  is  an  important  market,  into 
which  the  raw  materials  of  eastern  Europe  are  received, 
and  from  which  they  are  sent  to  the  manufacturing  districts. 
The  art  galleries  of  Dresden  have  had  the  effect  of  making 
that  city  a  centre  of  art  manufactures  which  are  famous 
the  world  over.  Lubeck  is  one  of  the  free  cities  that  wan 
formerly  in  the  Hanse  League. 

The  twin  cities,  Barmen- Eberf eld,  in  the  Ruhr  coal-field, 
form  one  of  the  principal  centres  of  cotton  manufacture  in 

*  This  is  a  little  greater  than  the  average  ton-mile  rate  on  the  New  York 
Central  Railroad  between  New  York  and  Chicago. 


EUROPE— GREAT  BRITAIN   AND   GERMANY  309 

tlie  world.  Dortmund  is  a  coal-market.  At  Essen  are  the 
steel-works  founded  by  Herr  Krupp.  They  are  the  largest 
and  one  of  the  most  complete  plants  in  the  world.  The 
output  includes  arms,  heavy  and  light  ordnance,  and  about 
every  kind  of  structural  iron  and  steel  used.  About  forty 
thousand  men-  are  employed.  Chemnitz  is  an  important 
point,  not  only  of  cotton  manufacture,  but  also  of  Saxony 
wools,  underwear  and  shawls  being  its  most  noteworthy 
products.  At  Stettin,  Danzig,  and  Kiel  are  built  the 
steamships  that  have  given  to  Germany  its  great  com* 
mercial  power. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

In  what  ways  are  Great  Britain  and  Germany  commercial 
rivals  ? 

What  are  the  advantages  of  each  with  respect  to  position  ? — 
with  respect  to  natural  resources  ? 

From  the  Statesman's  Year-Book  make  a  list  of  the  leading  ex- 
ports of  each  ; — the  leading  imports  of  each.  What  exports  have 
they  in  common  ? 

From  the  Abstract  of  Statistics  find  what  commodities  the 
United  States  sells  to  each. 

FOR   COLLATERAL   READING  AND   REFERENCE 

Adams's  New  Empire — Chapter  III. 

Gibbins's  History  of  Commerce— Book  III,  Chapters  III-V. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

EUROPE— THE    BALTIC   AND  NORTH   SEA  STATES 

These  states,  like  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  belong 
to  Germanic  Europe,  and  their  situation  around  the  North 
and  Baltic  Seas  makes  their  commercial  interests  much 
the  same.  Erom  the  stand-point  of  commerce  Holland 
might  be  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of  Germany,  inas- 
much as  a  large  part  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  Germany 
must  reach  the  sea  by  crossing  that  state. 

Sweden  and  Norway.— Sweden  and  Norway  occupy 
the  region  best  known  as  the  Scandinavian  peninsula. 
The  western  side  faces  the  warm,  moist  winds  of  the  At- 
lantic, but  the  surface  is  too  rugged  to  be  productive. 
The  lands  suitable  for  farming,  on  the  other  hand,  are  on 
the  east  side,  where,  owing  to  the  high  latitude,  the  winters 
are  extremely  cold. 

The  plateau  lands  are  in  the  latitude  of  the  great  pine- 
forest  belt  that  extends  across  the  two  continents.  The 
forests  of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  are  near  the  most 
densely  peopled  part  of  Europe,  and  they  are  also  readily 
accessible.  Moreover,  the  rugged  surface  offers  unlimited 
water-power.  As  a  result  Norway  and  Sweden  practically 
control  the  lumber-market  of  Europe,  and  their  lumber 
products  form  one  of  the  most  important  exports  of  the 
kingdom.  Norway  pine  competes  with  California  red- 
wood in  Australia.  The  "naval  stores,"  tar  and  pitch, 
compete  with  those  of  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas.  The 
wood-pulp   from  this  region  is  the  chief  supply  of  the 

310 


EUROPE— THE   BALTIC   AND    NORTH   SEA   STATES      311 

paper-makers  of  Europe.  Next  to  Russia,  Sweden  has 
the  largest  lumber-trade  iu  Europe.  The  Mediterranean 
states  are  the  chief  buyers. 

The  mineral  products  are  a  considerable  source  of  in- 
come. Building  stone  is  shipped  to  the  nearby  lowland 
countries.  The  famous  Swedish  manganese-iron  ores, 
essential  in  steel  manufacture,  are  shipped  to  the  United 
States  and  Europe.  For  this  purpose  they  compete  with 
the  ores  of  Spain  and  Cuba.  The  mines  of  the  Gellivare 
iron  district  are  probably  the  only  iron-mines  of  conse- 
quence within  the  frigid  zone.  The  ore  is  sent  to  German 
and  British  smelteries. 

The  fisheries  are  the  most  important  of  Europe,  and 
this  fact  has  had  a  great  influence  on  the  history  of  the 
people.  Centuries  ago  the  people  living  about  the  vigs  or 
fjords  of  the  west  coast  were  compelled  to  depend  almost 
wholly  on  the  fisheries  for  their  food- supplies.  As  a  result 
they  became  the  most  famous  sailors  of  the  world.  They 
established  settlements  in  Iceland  and  Greenland ;  they 
also  planted  a  colony  in  North  America  500  years  before 
the  voyage  of  Columbus.  Herring,  salmon,  and  cod  are 
the  principal  catch  of  the  fisheries,  and  about  four-fifths  of 
the  product  is  cured  and  exported  to  the  Catholic  European 
states  and  to  South  America. 

South  of  Kristiania  farming  is  the  principal  industry. 
Much  of  the  land  is  suitable  for  wheat-growing,  but  the 
productive  area  is  so  small  that  a  considerable  amount  of 
bread-stuffs  must  be  imported  from  the  United  States. 
On  account  of  the  high  latitude  the  winters  are  too  long 
and  severe  for  any  but  the  hardiest  grains.  Dairy  prod- 
ucts are  commercially  the  most  important  output  of  the 
farms,  and  they  find  a  ready  market  in  the  popular  centres 
of  Europe — London,  Hamburg,  Paris,  and  Berlin. 

The  lumber,  furniture,  matches,  fish,  ores,   and   dairy 


312  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

products  sold  abroad  do  not  pay  for  the  bread  stuffs,  coal, 
petroleum,  clothing,  and  machinery.  In  part,  this  is  made 
up  by  the  carrying  trade  of  Norwegian  vessels ;  the  rest 
of  the  deficit  is  more  than  met  by  the  money  which  the 
throngs  of  tourists  spend  during  the  summer  months. 

The  United  States  buys  from  these  countries  fish  and 
ores  to  the  amount  of  about  three  million  dollars  a  year ; 
it  sells  them  cotton,  petroleum,  bread-stuffs,  and  machinery 
to  the  amount  of  about  twelve  million  dollars. 

Stockholm,  the  capital  of  Sweden,  is  the  chief  financial 
and  distributing  centre  of  the  Scandinavian  trade.  Its 
railway  system  reaches  about  every  area  of  production. 
Although  having  a  good  harbor  of  its  own,  it  must  depend 
on  Trondhjem  (Drontheim)  for  winter  traffic,  because  the 
Baltic  ports  are  closed  by  ice  three  or  four  months  of  the 
year.  Kristiania,  the  capital  of  Norway,  is  the  export 
market  of  the  fish  and  lumber  products. 

Goteborg,  owing  to  recently  completed  railway  and 
canal  connections,  is  becoming  an  important  port  of  trade. 
It  is  convenient  to  other  European  ports,  and  it  is  rarely 
closed  by  ice.  Bergen,  Trondhjem,  and  Hammerfest  derive 
a  heavy  income  from  their  fisheries  and  likewise  from  the 
tourists  who  visit  the  coast  during  midsummer.  The  last- 
named  port,  although  farther  north  than  any  town  in  the 
world,  has  an  open  harbor  during  the  winter. 

Denmark. — Denmark  is  essentially  an  agricultural  state, 
and  almost  every  square  mile  of  available  land  is  under 
cultivation.  Even  the  sand-dunes  have  been  reclaimed 
and  converted  into  pasturage.  The  yield  of  wheat  is 
greater  per  acre  than  in  any  other  country,  but  as  only 
a  small  area  is  sown,  wheat  and  flour  are  imported. 

About  half  the  area  of  the  state  is  used  in  growing  fod- 
der for  horses  and  cattle.  The  dairy  products,  especially 
butter,  are  unrivalled  elsewhere   in   Europe.     The   dairy 


EUROPE — THE   BALTIC   AND   NORTH   SEA   STATES      313 

business  is  largely  controlled  by  a  cooperative  association 
of  dairymen  and  farmers.  Pastures,  fodder,  cattle,  sheds, 
creameries,  and  all  the  processes  involved  are  subject  to  a 
most  rigid  sanitary  inspection. 

Copenhagen,  the  capital,  is  the  financial  centre  of  the 
kingdom.  Commercially  it  is  one  of  the  most  important 
ports  of  Europe.  Various  shipments  consigned  to  Baltic 
ports  are  landed  at  this  city ;  here  the  cargoes  break  bulk 
and  are  again  transshipped  to  their  destination.  In  order 
to  facilitate  this  forwarding  business,  the  Crown  has  made 
Copenhagen  a  free  port.  Steamship  lines  connect  it  with 
New  York,  British  ports,  and  the  East  Indies. 

A  great  deal  of  farming  and  dairy  machinery  is  manu- 
factured ;  coal,  cotton  goods,  and  structural  machinery  are 
imported  from  the  United  States.  Little,  however,  is  ex- 
ported to  that  country,  almost  all  the  dairy  products  being 
sold  to  Great  Britain  and  other  populous  centres  of  west- 
ern Europe.     Aalborg  and  Aarhuus  are  dairy-markets. 

Greenland  and  Iceland  are  colonies  of  Denmark,  and 
the  fishing  industry  of  the  kingdom  is  carried  on  mainly 
along  the  shores  of  these  islands.  The  furs,  seal-skins, 
seal-oil,  and  eider-down  of  Greenland  are  a  government 
monopoly.  The  mineral  cryolite  occurs  at  Ivigtut  and  is 
mined  by  soda-making  establishments  in  the  United  States. 
Iceland  produces  sheep,  cattle,  and  fish  ;  these  are  shipped 
from  Beikiavik.  The  Faroe  Islands  produce  but  little 
save  wool,  feathers,  and  birds'  eggs. 

Belgium.— Probably  in  no  other  country  of  Europe  has 
nature  done  so  little  and  man  so  much  to  make  a  great 
state  as  in  Belgium.  The  lowland  region  has  been  made 
so  fertile  by  artificial  means  that  it  yields  more  wheat  per 
acre  than  any  other  country  except  Denmark.  The  Ar- 
dennes highland  in  the  southeast  is  naturally  unproduc- 
tive, but  it  has  become  one  of  the  great  manufacturing 


314 


COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 


level  shown  thus 

NOR  T/m 


Longitude    East     from   6XJ 


HOLLAND  and  BELGIUM. FP3Nc?S^'n 


SCALE  OF  STATUTE  mues.      ygLeei 
Land  below  sea  ft^t-^         Haj^j  n  gen/ 
Helder 


centres  of  Europe.     Less  than  one-twelfth  of  the  area  of 
the  state  is  unproductive. 

The  coast,  more  than  twoscore  miles  in  extent,  has  not 
a  single  harbor  for  large  vessels,  and  the  two  navigable 
rivers,  the  Scheldt  and  Meuse,  flow  into  another  state  be- 
fore reaching  the  sea. 

The  low  sand-barrens  next  the  coast  have  been  reclaimed 
by  means  of  a  grass  that  holds  in  place  the  sand  that  for- 
merly shifted  with  each 
movement  of  the  wind. 
This  region  is  now  cul- 
tivated pasture-land  that 
produces  the  finest  of 
horses,  cattle,  and  dairy 
products.  The  dairy 
products  go  mainly  to 
London.  The  Flemish 
horses,  like  those  of  the 
sand  -  barrens  of  Ger- 
many and  France,  are 
purchased  in  the  large 
cities,  where  heavy 
draught-horses  are  re- 
quired. Many  of  them 
are  sold  to  the  express 
companies  of  the  United 
States. 

Bordering  the  sand-barrens  is  a  belt  of  land  that  pro- 
duces grain  and  the  sugar-beet.  Flax  is  an  important 
product,  and  its  cultivation  has  had  much  to  do  with  both 
the  history  and  the  political  organization  of  the  state.  Be- 
fore the  advent  of  the  cotton  industry,  woollen  and  linen 
were  practically  the  only  fibres  used  in  cloth-making.  Bel- 
gium was  then  the  chief  flax-growing  and  cloth-making 


si     v*,V-Faar|ar 


EUROPE — THE  BALTIC   AND   NORTH   SEA   STATES      315 

country,  and  all  western  Europe  depended  upon  the  Flem- 
ish looms  for  cloth.  This  industry,  therefore,  gave  the 
country  not  only  commercial  prominence,  but  was  largely 
responsible  for  its  political  independence  as  well.  Flax  is 
still  an  important  product,  and  the  linen  textiles  made  in 
the  state  are  without  a  superior.  Much  of  the  flax  is  grown 
in  the  valley  of  the  Kiver  Lys. 

One  of  the  most  productive  coal-fields  of  Europe 
stretches  across  Belgium,  and  a  few  miles  south  of  it  are 
the  iron-ore  deposits  that  extend  also  into  Luxemburg 
and  Germany.  In  addition  to  these,  the  zinc-mines 
about  Moresnet  are  among  the  richest  in  the  world.  Bel- 
gium is,  therefore,  one  of  the  great  metal- working  centres 
of  Europe.  A  small  portion  of  the  coal  is  exported  to 
France,  but  most  of  it  is  required  in  the  manufactures. 

Liege,  Severing,  and  Verviers  are  the  great  centres  of  the 
metal  industry.  They  were  built  at  the  eastern  extremity 
of  the  coal-field,  within  easy  reach  of  the  iron  ores.  Fire- 
arms, railroad  steel,  and  tool-making  machinery  are  the 
chief  products  of  the  region,  and  because  of  the  favorable 
situation,  these  products  easily  compete  with  the  manu- 
factures of  Germany  and  France. 

Ghent  is  the  chief  focal  point  for  the  flax  product,  which 
is  converted  into  the  finest  of  linen  cloth  and  art  fabrics. 
Much  of  the  weaving  and  spinning  machinery  employed 
in  Europe  is  made  in  this  city.  Mechlin  and  the  villages 
near  by  are  famous  the  world  over  for  hand-worked  laces. 

Expensive  porcelains,  art  tiles,  glassware,  and  cheap 
crockery  are  made  in  the  line  of  kilns  that  reaches  almost 
from  one  end  of  the  coal-field  to  the  other;  these  prod- 
ucts, moreover,  are  extensively  exported. 

The  railways  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  state.  They 
are  managed  so  judiciously,  moreover,  that  the  rates  of 
carriage  are  lower  than  in  most   European  states.     The 


316  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Scheldt  is  navigable  for  large  ocean  steamers  to  Antwerp, 
and  this  city  is  the  great  Belgian  port  for  ocean  traffic. 
The  city  owes  its  importance  to  its  position.  One  branch 
of  the  Scheldt  leads  toward  the  Rhine ;  the  other  is  con- 
nected by  a  canal  with  the  rivers  of  France ;  the  main  stem 
of  the  river  points  toward  London.  It  is  therefore  the 
meeting  of  three  ways.  It  is  the  terminal  of  the  steam- 
ships of  American,  and  of  various  other  lines.  It  is  also 
the  depot  of  the  Kongo  trade.  Ship-canals  deep  enough 
for  coasters  and  freighters  connect  Ghent,  Bruges,  and 
Brussels  with  tide-water.  These  are  about  to  be  converted 
to  deep-water  ship-canals. 

The  foreign  commerce  of  Belgium  is  much  like  that  of 
other  European  states.  Wheat,  meat,  maize,  cotton,  and 
petroleum  are  imported  mainly  from  the  United  States ; 
iron  ore  is  purchased  from  Luxemburg  and  Germany,  and 
various  raw  materials  are  brought  from  France.  In  ex- 
change there  are  exported  fine  machinery,  linen  fabrics, 
porcelains,  fire-arms,  glassware,  and  beet-sugar.  From  the 
Kongo  state,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  King  of  the  Bel- 
gians, are  obtained  rubber  and  ivory.  The  rubber  is  sold 
mainly  to  the  United  States. 

Brussels  is  the  capital  and  financial  centre.  On  account 
of  the  state  control  of  the  railways,  it  is  also  the  direc- 
tive centre  of  all  the  industries  pertaining  to  commerce 
and  transportation. 

Holland. — The  names  Holland  and  Netherlands  mean 
"  lowland,"  and  the  state  itself  has  a  lower  surface  than  any 
other  country  of  Europe.  Nearly  half  the  area  is  at  high- 
tide  level  or  else  below  it.  A  large  part,  mainly  the  region 
about  the  Zuider*  Sea,  has  been  reclaimed  from  the  sea. 

In  the  reclamation  of  these  lands  stone  dikes  are  built 

*  The  name  Zuider,  or  Zuyder,  means  "south";  it  was  so  named  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  North  Sea. 


EUROPE— THE   BALTIC   AND   NORTH   SEA    STATES      317 

to  enclose  a  given  area,  and  from  the  basin  thus  constructed 
the  water  is  pumped.  The  reclaimed  lands,  or  "  polders," 
include  not  only  the  sea-bottom,  but  the  coast  marshes  as 
well ;  even  the  rivers  are  bordered  with  levees  in  order  to 
prevent  overflows.  Windmills  are  the  machinery  by  which 
the  water  is  pumped  from  the  polders  into  the  sea.  In  no 
other  part  of  the  world  is  wind-power  so  extensively  used. 
Almost  every  acre  of  the  polders  is  under  cultivation,  and 
these  lands  grow  a  very  large  part  of  the  vegetables  and 
flowers  consumed  in  the  great  cities  of  England,  France, 
and  Belgium. 

The  coast  sand-barrens  have  been  converted  into  pasture- 
lands  that  produce  draught-horses,  beef  cattle,  and  dairy 
cattle.  The  horses  find  a  ready  market  in  the  United 
States  and  the  large  European  cities ;  the  dairy  cattle  not 
needed  at  home  are  exported,  the  United  States  being  a 
heavy  purchaser.  The  beef  cattle  are  grown  mainly  for 
the  markets  of  London.  Dutch  butter  is  used  far  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  the  state,  and  Edam  cheese  reaches 
nearly  every  large  city  of  Europe  and  America. 

The  sugar-beet  is  extensively  cultivated,  in  spite  of  the 
great  trade  resulting  from  the  cane-sugar  industry  of  the 
East  Indies.  It  is  more  profitable  to  import  wheat  from 
the  United  States  and  rye  from  Russia  in  order  to  use 
the  land  for  the  sugar-beet. 

Practically  no  timber  suitable  for  lumber  manufacture 
exists,  and  building  material  therefore  must  be  imported. 
Pine  is  purchased  from  Russia,  Scandinavia,  and  the  United 
States.  Stone  is  purchased  wherever  it  may  be  obtained 
as  return  freight,  or  as  ballast.  The  coast  fisheries  yield 
oysters,  herrings,  and  "anchovies,"  which  are  not  ancho- 
vies, but  sprats. 

For  want  of  coal  and  iron  there  are  few  manufactures, 
and  the  garden  and  dairy  products  are  about  the  only  ex- 


318  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

port  articles.  There  is  an  abundance  of  clay,  and  of  this 
brick  for  road-making,  tiles  for  building  purposes,  and  por- 
celains are  made.  But  little  of  the  raw  sugar  is  refined ; 
most  of  it  is  sold  to  foreign  refiners,  and  the  United  States 
is  one  of  the  chief  customers. 

Holland  is  a  great  commercial  country,  and  for  more  than 
five  hundred  years  the  Dutch  flag  has  been  found  in  almost 
every  large  port  of  the  world.  Much  of  the  commerce  is 
derived  from  the  tobacco,  sugar,  and  coffee  plantations  of 
the  Dutch  East  Indies. 

A  very  large  part  of  the  commerce,  however,  is  neither 
import  or  export  trade,  but  a  "transit"  commerce.  Thus, 
American  coal-oil  is  transferred  from  the  great  ocean 
tank-steamers  to  smaller  tank-boats,  and  is  then  carried 
across  the  state  into  Germany,  France,  and  Belgium, 
through  the  numerous  canals. 

This  trade  applies  also  to  many  of  the  products  of  the 
German  industries  which  will  not  bear  a  heavy  freight 
tariff,  such  as  coal,  ores,  etc.  It  reaches  the  Rhine  and 
Rhone  river-basins  and  extends  even  to  the  Danube. 
Both  Switzerland  and  Austria-Hungary  send  much  of 
their  exports  through  Holland.  All  trade  at  the  various 
ports  and  through  the  canals  is  free,  it  being  the  policy  to 
encourage  and  not  to  obstruct  commerce. 

Amsterdam,  the  constitutional  capital,  is  one  of  the  great 
financial  and  banking  centres  of  Europe.  The  completion 
of  the  Nord  Holland  canal  makes  the  docks  and  basins  ac- 
cessible to  the  largest  steamships.  Diamond-cutting  is 
one  of  the  unique  industries  of  the  city.  Since  the  dis- 
covery of  the  African  mines  its  former  trade  in  diamonds 
has  been  largely  absorbed  by  London. 

More  than  half  the  carrying  trade  of  the  state  centres  at 
Rotterdam.  By  the  improvement  of  the  river  estuaries 
and  canals  this  city  has  become  one  of  the  best  ports  of 


EUROPE— THE  BALTIC   AND   NORTH   SEA   STATES      319 

Europe,  and  the  tonnage  of  goods  handled  at  the  docks 
is  enormously  increasing.  Vlissingen  (Flushing)  and  the 
Hook  are  railway  terminals  that  handle  much  of  the  local 
freights  consigned  to  London.  Delft  is  famous  the  world 
over  for  the  beautiful  porcelain  made  at  its  potteries. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

How  has  the  topography  of  each  of  these  states  affected  its 
commerce  ? 

How  is  their  commerce  affected  by  latitude  and  climate  ? 

How  has  the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet  affected  the  cane- 
sugar  industry  in  the  British  West  Indies  ? 

From  the  Statesman's  Year-Book  make  a  list  of  the  leading  ex- 
ports and  imports  of  each  country. 

From  the  Abstract  of  Statistics  find  the  trade  of  the  United 
States  with  each  of  these  countries. 

FOR  COLLATERAL   READING  AND  REFERENCE 

Adams's  New  Empire— pp.  153-159. 

Gibbins's  History  of  Commerce— Book  III,  Chapters  I  and  VIIL 


CHAPTER  XXYII 

EUROPE— THE   MEDITERRANEAN  STATES  AND 
SWITZERLAND 

The  Mediterranean  states  are  peopled  mainly  by  races 
whose  social  and  economic  development  was  moulded 
largely  by  the  Roman  occupation  of  the  Mediterranean 
basin  for  a  period  of  more  than  one  thousand  years.  The 
occupations  of  the  people  have  been  shaped  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  slope  of  the  land  and  by  the  mountain-ranges 
that  long  isolated  them  from  the  Germanic  peoples  north 
of  the  Alps. 

France. — The  position  of  France  with  respect  to  indus- 
trial development  is  fortunate.  The  North  Sea  coast  faces 
the  ports  of  Great  Britain ;  the  Atlantic  ports  are  easily 
accessible  to  American  centres  of  commerce ;  the  Mediter- 
ranean ports  command  a  very  large  part  of  the  trade  of 
that  sea. 

The  easily  travelled  overland  routes  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  North  Seas  in  very  early  times  gave  the  country 
a  commercial  prominence  that  ever  since  has  been  retained. 
Even  before  the  time  of  Caesar  it  was  a  famous  trading- 
ground  for  Mediterranean  merchants,  and  the  conquest  of 
the  country  was  not  so  much  for  the  spoils  of  war  as  for 
the  extension  of  Roman  commercial  influence. 

The  greater  part  of  France  is  an  agricultural  region,  and 
nowhere  is  the  soil  cultivated  with  greater  skill.  Although 
the  state  is  not  quite  as  large  as  Texas,  there  are  more 
farms  than  in  all  the  United  States,  their  small  size  mak- 
ing thorough  cultivation  a  necessity.     Much  of  the  land  is 

320 


EUROPE — THE   MEDITERRANEAN   STATES 


321 


too  valuable  for  wheat-farming,  and  so  the  eastern  manu- 
facturing districts  depend  upon  the  Russian  wheat-farms 
for  their  supply.  Northwestern  France,  however,  has  a 
surplus  of  wheat,  and  this  is  sold  to  Great  Britain. 

The  sugar-beet  is  the  most  profitable  crop,  and  its  culti- 


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vation  is  aided  indirectly  by  the  government,  which  gives 
a  bounty  on  all  exported  sugar.  The  area  of  sugar-beet 
cultivation  will  probably  increase  to  its  limit  for  this 
reason. 

The   French  farmer  is  an  artist  in  the  cultivation  of 
small  fruits,  and  the  latter  form  an  important  source  of 


322  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

revenue.  Of  the  fruit- crop,  the  grape  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant commercially.  French  wines,  especially  the  cham- 
pagnes, are  exported  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  wines  of 
any  other  country.  Most  of  the  wine  is  sold  in  Great 
Britain  and  the  countries  north  of  the  grape  belt ;  a  con- 
siderable part  is  sold  in  the  United  States  and  the  east- 
ern countries.  Champagne,  Bordeaux,  the  Loire,  and  the 
Ehone  Valleys  are  famous  wine  districts.  Wine  is  also 
imported,  to  be  refined  or  to  be  made  into  brandy. 

Cattle-breeding,  both  for  meat  and  for  dairy  purposes, 
is  extensively  carried  on.  The  meat  is  consumed  at  home. 
Butter  is  an  important  export,  especially  in  the  north- 
west, where  a  large  amount  is  made  for  London  con- 
sumers. This  region  produces  Camembert  and  Neuf chatel 
cheese,  both  of  which  are  largely  exported  ;  Brie  cheese  is 
made  chiefly  along  the  German  border.  The  Roquefort 
product,  made  of  ewe's  milk,  is  fermented  in  limestone 
caves  and  cellars.  All  these  varieties  have  a  large  sale,  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  being  heavy  purchasers. 

The  Percheron  draught-horse  is  raised  for  export  as 
well  as  for  home  use ;  mules  are  extensively  raised  for  the 
army  wagon -trains  of  Great  Britain  and  Germany.  Sheep 
are  grown  for  the  finer  grades  of  wool,  but  so  much  of  the 
sheep  pasture  has  been  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
sugar-beet,  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  woollen  textiles 
are  now  made  of  wool  imported  from  Argentina.  A  large 
part  of  the  eggs  and  table  poultry  consumed  in  London 
are  products  of  northwestern  France. 

*  Some  years  ago  many  of  the  most  valuable  vineyards  were  destroyed 
by  an  insect  pest  known  as  the  phylloxera,  introduced  from  California. 
The  trouble  was  overcome  by  replanting  with  American  vines,  the  roots 
of  which  were  immune  to  the  pest.  On  these  roots  were  grafted  the 
choice  French  vines,  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  which  were  immune.  In 
this  manner  the  vineyards  were  restored  with  vines  that  are  proof  against 
attack,  and  the  wine  output  has  reached  its  normal  amount. 


EUROPE— THE   MEDITERRANEAN   STATES  323 

The  coal-fields  of  the  north  produce  nearly  two-thirds  of 
the  total  amount  consumed.  Iron  ores  are  found  near  the 
German  border  ;  they  are  sent  to  coal-fields  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  St.  Etienne  and  Le  Creuzot  to  be  manufactured 
into  steel.  Both  coal  and  iron  ore  are  deficient.  To  meet 
the  requirements  of  consumption,  the  former  is  imported 
from  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Belgium ;  the  latter, 
mainly  from  Germany  and  Spain. 

The  manufactures  of  France  have  a  wide  influence. 
From  the  coal  and  iron  are  derived  the  intricate  machinery 
that  has  made  the  country  famous,  the  railways,  the  pow- 
erful navy,  and  the  merchant  marine  that  has  made  the 
country  a  great  commercial  nation.  Because  of  the  great 
creative  skill  and  taste  of  the  people,  French  textiles  are 
standards  of  good  taste,  and  they  find  a  ready  market  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  In  textile  manufactures  more  than 
one  million  people  and  upward  of  one  hundred  thousand 
looms  are  employed. 

The  United  States  is  a  heavy  buyer  of  the  woollen  cloths 
and  the  finer  qualities  of  dress  goods.  Inasmuch  as  these 
goods  have  not  been  successfully  imitated  elsewhere,  the 
French  trade  does  not  suffer  from  competition.  The  best 
goods  are  made  from  the  fleeces  of  French  merino  sheep, 
and  are  manufactured  mainly  in  the  northern  towns.  The 
Gobelin  tapestries  of  Paris  are  famous  the  world  over. 

The  cotton  manufactures  depend  mainly  on  American 
cotton.  About  two-thirds  of  the  cotton  is  purchased  in 
the  United  States,  a  part  of  which  returns  in  the  form  of 
fine  goods  that  may  be  classed  as  muslins,  tulles,  and  art 
textiles.  The  market  for  such  goods  is  also  general.  In 
the  manufacture  of  fine  laces,  such  as  the  Point  d'Alencon 
fabrics,  the  French  have  few  equals  and  no  superiors. 
The  flax  is  imported  mainly  from  Belgium. 

Silk  culture  is  aided  by  the  government,  and  is  carried 


324  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

on  mainly  in  the  south.  The  amount  grown,  however,  is 
insufficient  to  keep  the  factories  busy,  arid  more  than  four- 
fifths  of  the  raw  silk  and  cocoons  are  imported  from  Italy 
and  other  southern  countries. 

The  chief  imports  to  France  are  coal,  raw  textile  fibres, 
wine,  wheat,  and  lumber.  The  last  two  products  excepted, 
they  are  again  exported  in  the  form  of  manufactured  prod- 
ucts. The  great  bulk  of  the  imports  comes  from  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  Germany,  Belgium,  Russia,  and 
Argentina.  In  1900  the  import  trade  from  these  countries 
aggregated  about  five  hundred  million  dollars.  The  total 
export  trade  during  the  same  year  was  about  eight  hun- 
dred million  dollars;  it  consisted  mainly  of  high-priced 
articles  of  luxury. 

The  foreign  trade  is  supported  by  a  navy,  which  ranks 
second  among  the  world's  navies,  and  a  merchant  marine 
of  more  than  fifteen  thousand  vessels.  Aside  from  the  sub- 
sidies given  to  mail  steamships,  government  encourage- 
ment is  given  for  the  construction  and  equipment  of  home- 
built  vessels.  It  is  a  settled  policy  that  French  vessels 
shall  carry  French  traffic. 

Of  the  24,000  miles  of  railway,  about  2,000  miles  are 
owned  by  the  state.  The  rivers  are  connected  by  canals, 
and  these  furnish  about  7,000  miles  of  navigable  waters. 
As  in  Germany,  the  water-routes  supplement  the  railway 
lines.  Practically  all  lines  of  transportation  converge  at 
Paris. 

Paris,  the  capital,  is  a  great  centre  of  finance,  art, 
science,  and  literature,  whose  influence  in  these  features 
has  been  felt  all  over  the  world.  The  character  of  fine  tex- 
tiles, and  also  the  fashions  in  the  United  States  and  Eu- 
rope, are  regulated  largely  in  this  city.  Marseille,  is  the 
chief  seaport,  and  practically  all  the  trade  between  France 
and  the  Mediterranean  countries  is  landed  at  this  port ;  it 


EUROPE — THE   MEDITERRANEAN   STATES  325 

is  also  the  focal  point  of  the  trade  between  France  and  her 
African  colonies,  and  a  landing-place  for  the  cotton  brought 
from  Egypt  and  Brazil. 

Havre,  the  port  receiving  most  of  the  trade  from  the 
United  States,  is  the  port  of  Paris.  Rouen  is  the  chief  seat 
of  cotton  manufacture.  Paris  and  Rheims  are  noted  for 
shawls.  Lille  and  Roubaix  are  centres  of  woollen  manu- 
facture.    Lyons  is  the  great  seat  of  silk  manufacture. 

Italy. — Italy  is  a  spur  of  the  Alps  extending  into  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  From  its  earliest  history  it  has  been 
an  agricultural  state,  and,  excepting  the  periods  when  it  has 
been  rent  by  wars,  it  has  been  one  of  the  most  productive 
countries  in  the  world. 

Wheat  is  extensively  grown,  but  the  crop  is  insufficient 
for  home  consumption,  and  the  deficit  is  imported  from 
Russia  and  Hungary.  A  large  part  of  the  wheat-crop  is 
grown  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  River.  Flax  and  hemp  are 
grown  for  export  in  this  region  ;  and  corn  for  home  con- 
sumption is  a  general  product.  Cotton  is  a  good  crop  in 
Sicily  and  the  south,  but  the  amount  is  insufficient  for 
use  and  must  be  made  up  by  imports  from  the  United 
States  and  Egypt. 

Silk,  fruit,  and  vegetables  are  the  staple  products  that 
connect  Italy  commercially  with  the  rest  of  the  world. 
About  a  million  people  are  concerned  in  the  silk  industry, 
and  Italy  is  one  of  the  foremost  countries  in  the  world  in 
the  production  of  raw  silk.  Most  of  the  crop  is  produced 
in  northern  Italy ;  western  Europe  and  the  United  States 
are  the  chief  buyers.  The  silk  of  the  Piedmont  region  is 
the  best  in  quality. 

Fruit  is  the  crop  next  in  value  to  raw  silk.  Sicilian 
oranges  and  lemons,  from  about  twenty  millions  of  trees, 
find  a  ready  market  in  Europe ;  the  oranges  come  into 
competition  with  the  California  and  Florida  oranges  of  the 


326 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


United  States,  in  spite  of  the  tariff  imposed  against  them 
by  the  latter  country.  Olives  are  probably  the  most  im- 
portant fruit-crop.  Both  the  preserved  fruit  and  the  oil 
are  exported  to  nearly  every  civilized  people.    Much  of  the 


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oil  is  consumed  at  home,  very  largely  taking  the  place  of 
meat  and  butter.     Lucca-oil  is  regarded  as  the  best. 

The  grape-crop  is  enormous,  and  the  fruit  itself  is  ex- 
ported. Some  of  the  fruit  sold  as  "  Malaga "  grapes 
throughout  the  United  States  during  winter  months 
comes  from  Italy.    Chianti  wine,  from  the  vineyards  around 


EUROPE— THE   MEDITERRANEAN   STATES  327 

Florence,  has  hitherto  been  regarded  as  an  inferior  prod- 
uct, bnt  the  foreign  demand  for  it  is  steadily  increasing. 
The  Marsala  wines  of  Sicily  are  largely  exported. 

Among  mineral  products  the  iron  deposits  in  the  island 
of  Elba  are  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable,  but  they  are 
yet  undeveloped  to  any  great  extent.  The  quarries  at 
Carrara  produce  a  fine  marble  that  has  made  Italy  famous 
in  sculpture  and  architecture.  Much  of  the  boracic  acid 
used  in  the  arts  comes  from  Tuscany,  and  the  world's  chief 
supply  of  sulphur  comes  from  the  neighborhood  of  Mount 
Etna  in  Sicily.     Of  this  Americans  buy  about  one-third. 

On  account  of  the  lack  of  coal,  the  manufactures  are 
restricted  mainly  to  art  wares,  such  as  jewelry,  silk  textiles, 
and  fine  glassware.  The  Yenetian  glassware,  the  Floren- 
tine and  mosaic  jewelry,  and  the  pink  coral  ornaments  are 
famous  the  world  over.  Within  recent  years,  however,  im- 
ported coal,  together  with  native  lignite,  have  given  steel 
manufacture  an  impetus.  Steel  ships  and  rails  made  at 
home  are  meeting  the  demands  of  commerce.  Goods  of 
American  cotton  are  made  for  export  to  Turkey  and  South 
American  countries. 

Eaw  silk,  wine,  olive-oil,  straw  goods,  sulphur,  and  art 
goods  are  exported.  Cotton,  wheat,  tobacco,  and  farm 
machinery  from  the  United  States,  and  coal,  woollen  tex- 
tiles, and  steel  goods  from  Great  Britain  are  the  chief  im- 
ports. Most  of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  the  nearby  states. 
The  raw  silk  goes  to  France. 

Since  the  unification  of  Italy  the  railways  have  been  re- 
adjusted to  the  needs  of  commerce.  Before  that  time  the 
lines  were  wholly  local  in  character ;  with  the  readjustment 
they  were  organized  into  trunk  lines.  They  enter  France 
through  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel ;  they  reach  Switzerland 
and  Germany  by  way  of  St.  Gotthard  Pass ;  they  cross  the 
Austrian  border  through  Brenner  Pass. 


328  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Rome,  the  capital,  is  a  political  rather  than  an  industrial 
centre.  Milan,  the  Chicago  of  the  kingdom,  is  the  chief 
market  for  the  crops  of  northern  Italy  and  a  great  railway 
centre.  It  is  also  the  market  for  raw  silk.  Genoa,  the 
principal  port,  is  the  one  at  which  most  of  the  trade  of  the 
United  States  is  landed.  Naples  monopolizes  most  of  the 
marine  traffic  between  Italy  and  Great  Britain.  Leghorn 
is  famous  for  its  manufacture  and  trade  in  straw  goods.  A 
considerable  part  of  the  grain  harvested  in  the  Po  Valley 
is  stored  for  shipment  at  Venice — not  in  elevators,  but  in 
pits.  Palermo  is  the  trading  centre  of  Sicily.  Most  of  the 
sulphur  is  shipped  from  Catania.  Brindisi  and  Aneona 
are  shipping-points  for  the  Suez  Canal  route. 

Spain  and  Portugal. — The  surface  of  these  states  is 
too  rugged  and  the  climate  too  arid  for  any  great  agricult- 
ural development.  Less  than  half  the  area  is  under  cul- 
tivation ;  nevertheless,  they  are  famous  for  several  agricult- 
ural products — merino  wool,  wine,  and  fruit.  The  merino 
wool  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  has  no  equal  for  fine  dress 
goods;  it  is  imported  into  almost  every  other  country 
having  woollen  manufactures.  A  considerable  amount  of 
ordinary  wool  is  grown,  but  not  enough  for  home  needs. 

The  fruit  industry  is  an  important  source  of  income. 
Oranges,  limes,  and  lemons  are  extensively  grown  for  ex- 
ports ;  among  these  products  is  the  bitter  orange,  from 
which  the  famous  liqueur  curacao,  a  Dutch  manufacture,  is 
made.  The  heavy,  sweet  port  wine,  now  famous  the  world 
over,  was  first  made  prominent  in  the  vineyards  of  Spain 
and  Portugal.  Malaga  raisins  are  sold  in  nearly  every  part 
of  England  and  America.  The  olive  is  more  extensively 
cultivated  than  in  any  other  state,  but  both  the  fruit  and 
the  oil  are  mainly  consumed  at  home — the  latter  taking  the 
place  of  butter.     Kaw  silk  is  grown  for  export  to  France. 

Although  a  larger  part  of  the  peninsula  must  depend  on 


EUROPE— THE   MEDITERRANEAN   STATES 


329 


the  American  and  Scandinavian  forests  for  lumber,  there  is 
one  tree  product  that  is  in  demand  wherever  bottles  are  used 
— namely,  cork.  The  cork  is  prepared  from  the  bark  of  a 
tree  {Quercus  suber)  commonly  known  as  the  cork  oak,* 
which  grows  freely  in  the  Iberian  peninsula  and  northern 
Africa. 

Metals   and  minerals   of  economic   use  are  abundant. 


Longitude      W 
C.Ortegal 


from      Greenwich 


Saras\i 


<C    E 

LToulouse 


v__>     '^'r~-  Andorra 

£riOa_ 
Bar«relon$ 

Tarragona      / 


I   J 


8  IP     A\    IS  N  "V, 

'Albaoete" 
'Almaden  CluJrJSct~Re«l 


Castellou  d/ja/lana^ 

/    /       S 

aleneiV./J0RCAK 
&/<?/      BALEARIC 
*/&/*>  'viz* 
a  j/f    &    ISLES 

4>//  FORMENTIRA    ^S 


Lorca  < 


&Ufi 


'"".SM '/,«*„?    ~      *"    Pak 

I   T*Z  A  N  T  I  C 


ISevllfel 


Granada 

Loja        Almeria 


t.^2-- 


/.  i.s' 


limit/ 
\C.d'v 
Car1agp^a;^%^''        . 


\*S  "   *  *  ^  L    >XeWj     ^ w-J^c*A«;»;<  -g If"         C"P  A  f  "V 

^%>0  Cadizy        7  1    "HlUten  ,''"^'kV  oJrAlii 

0e^  >>><'"  V     lAraltar  (*g  rfflfi^  ^  ANU 

toJ^'"      A%BXSa9PH«DlirS?t  *           Oran/N     PORTUGAL. 
-''  f^^S^ltar  M  E  V    l  X^\_  Railroads  : 


'SS^J — '  Steamship  Routes  :- 

SCALE    OF    STATUTE    MILES. 


f~ a — y — r— ~i- 


Iron  ore  is  gold  to  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Germany. 
Since  the  Spanish- American  War,  however,  there  have  been 
extensive  developments  in  utilizing  the  coal  and  the  ore 
which  before  that  time  had  been  sold  to  other  countries. 

'•  It  is  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  the  Southern  States  and  in 
California. 


330  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

The  undeveloped  coal  and  iron  resources  are  very  great, 
and  must  figure  in  the  payment  of  a  national  debt  that  is 
near  the  limit  of  bankruptcy.  The  state,  however,  is  en- 
tering a  period  of  industrial  prosperity. 

The  most  available  metal  resource  is  quicksilver.  Of 
this  metal  the  mines  in  Almaden  produce  about  one-half 
the  world's  supply.  The  working  of  these  mines  is  prac- 
tically a  government  monopoly,  and  the  income  was  mort- 
gaged for  many  years  ahead  when  Spain  was  at  war  with 
her  rebellious  colonies. 

Both  Spain  and  Portugal  are  poorly  equipped  with 
means  for  transportation.  The  railways  lack  organization, 
and  freight  rates  are  excessive.  Not  a  little  of  the  trans- 
portation still  depends  on  the  ox-cart  and  the  pack-train. 
The  merchant  marine  has  scarcely  more  than  a  name  ;  the 
foreign  commerce  is  carried  almost  wholly  in  British  or 
French  bottoms.  The  imports  are  mainly  cotton,  coal, 
lumber,  and  food-stuffs — these  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
every  one  save  lumber  might  be  produced  at  home. 

Wine  and  fruit  products,  iron  ore,  and  quicksilver  are 
leading  exports.  Of  these  the  United  States  purchases 
wine  and  raisins  for  home  consumption  and  lace  and  fili- 
gree work  for  the  trade  with  Mexico.  Spain  has  a  consid- 
erable trade  in  cotton  goods  with  her  colonies,  the  Canary 
Islands,  and  the  African  provinces  of  Bio  cle  Oro  and  Adrar. 

Portugal  likewise  supplies  her  foreign  possessions — Goa 
(India),  Macao  (China),  and  the  Cape  Verde  and  Azores 
Islands — with  home  products.  The  chief  Portuguese  trade, 
however,  is  with  Great  Britain  and  Brazil. 

Madrid  is  the  capital  of  Spain.  Barcelona  is  the  chief 
commercial  centre.  Valencia,  Alicante,  Cartagena,  and 
Malaga  are  all  ports  of  fruit  and  wine  trade.  Oporto  has 
been  made  famous  for  the  port  wine  that  bears  its  name. 
Probably  not  one  per  cent,  of  the  port  now  used,  how- 


EUROPE— THE   MEDITERRANEAN   STATES  331 

ever,  comes  from  Oporto,  and  not  many  Malaga  raisins 
come  from  Malaga. 

Switzerland. — This  state  is  situated  in  the  heart  of  the 
highest  Alps.  The  southeastern  half  is  above  the  altitude 
in  which  food-stuffs  can  be  produced,  and  probably  no 
other  inhabited  country  has  a  greater  proportion  of  its 
area  above  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow.  A  considerable 
area  of  the  mountain-slopes  affords  grazing.  The  valley- 
lands  of  the  lake-region  produce  a  limited  amount  of  food- 
stuffs, but  not  enough  for  the  sparse  population. 

Politically,  Switzerland  is  a  republic,  having  the  position 
of  a  "buffer"  state  between  Germany,  Italy,  France,  and 
Austria-Hungary.  Racially,  the  state  is  divided  among 
Italians,  French,  and  Germans ;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  how- 
ever, the  old  Helvetian  spirit,  which  not  even  Caesar  could 
destroy,  is  still  a  great  factor  in  dominating  the  people ; 
this,  with  their  montane  environment,  gives  the  Swiss  a 
very  positive  nationality. 

The  agricultural  interests  of  the  state  are  developed  to 
their  utmost ;  two-thirds  of  the  bread-stuffs,  however,  are 
purchased  from  the  United  States,  the  plains  of  Bohemia, 
and  Russia.  Cherries,  apples,  grapes,  and  other  fruit  are 
cultivated  in  every  possible  place,  and  as  these  can  be 
delivered  to  any  part  of  western  and  central  Europe  within 
a  day,  the  fruit  industry  is  a  profitable  one. 

Cattle  are  bred  for  dairy  purposes,  but  those  for  beef 
must  be  very  largely  imported,  Austria-Hungary  and  Italy 
selling  the  needed  supply.  Goats  are  raised  for  their 
hides,  and  the  latter  are  converted  into  Morocco  leather. 
Of  the  dairy  products,  cheese  is  in  many  respects  the  most 
important ;  Gruyere  cheese  is  exported  to  nearly  every  coun- 
try. On  account  of  the  long  distance  from  populous  centres 
milk  cannot  be  transported  ;  much  of  it  is,  therefore,  con- 
densed, and  in  that  form  exported. 


332  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

A  peculiar  feature  of  the  dairy  industry  is  the  fact  that 
it  is  constantly  moving.  The  dairy  herds  begin  to  pasture 
in  the  lowlands  as  soon  as  the  snow  melts,  and  as  fast  as 
the  snow  line  recedes  up  the  mountains  the  cattle  follow. 
The  milk  is  converted  into  butter  and  cheese  wherever  the 
herds  may  be,  and  the  second  crop  of  grass  below  them  is 
cut  and  cured  for  winter  forage. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  Switzerland  has  no  available 
coal,*  manufacture  is  pre-eminently  the  industry  of  the 
state.  During  the  long  winters  the  Alpine  herdsman  and 
his  family  whittle  out  wooden  toys  from  the  stock  of  rough 
lumber  laid  by  for  the  purpose.  Farther  down  in  the 
valley-lands  the  exquisite  brocades  and  muslins  are  made 
on  hand-looms,  or  by  the  aid  of  the  abundant  water-power. 
Each  industrial  district  has  its  special  line  of  manufacture, 
so  that  there  is  scarcely  an  idle  day  in  the  year. 

In  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  lowland  district- watches, 
clocks,  music-boxes,  and  fine  machinery  are  manufactured. 
For  many  years  Swiss  watches  were  about  the  only  ones 
used  in  the  United  States,  but  on  account  of  the  competi- 
tion of  American  watches  this  trade  has  fallen  off.  The 
mechanical  music-player,  operated  by  perforated  paper,  has 
also  interfered  with  the  trade  in  music-boxes. 

Switzerland  is  provided  with  excellent  facilities  for 
transportation,  and  this  has  done  about  as  much  for  the 
commercial  welfare  of  the  state  as  all  other  industrial 
enterprises.  In  proportion  to  its  area,  the  railway  mileage 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  surrounding  states.  The  roads 
are  well  built  and  the  rates  of  transportation  are  low. 

In  addition  to  the  ordinary  trip-tickets,  monthly  time- 
tickets  are  issued  to  travellers,  allowing  the  holders  to 
travel  when  and  where  they  please  within  the  limits  of 
the  state  on  all  roads  and  lake-steamers.     These  are  sold 

*  A  small  vein  of  coal  occurs  near  Freiburg. 


EUROPE — THE   MEDITERRANEAN    STATES  333 

to  the  traveller  for  about  two-thirds  the  price  of  the  1,000- 
mile  book  of  the  American  railway.  The  carriage  roads 
have  no  superiors,  and  they  penetrate  about  every  part  of 
the  state  below  the  snow  line;  they  also  cross  the  main 
passes  of  the  Alps. 

Through  one  or  another  of  these  passes  most  of  the 
foreign  traffic  of  the  state  must  be  carried.  To  Genoa  and 
Milan  it  crosses  the  Alps  via  the  St.  Gotthard  tunnel,  or 
the  Simplon  Pass ;  *  to  Paris  it  goes  by  the  Rhone  Valley; 
between  Vienna  and  Switzerland,  by  the  Arlberg  tunnel ; 
and  to  Germany  or  to  Amsterdam  through  the  valley  of 
the  Main. 

As  a  result  of  this  most  excellent  system  of  transporta- 
tion, Switzerland  is  thronged  with  visiting  tourists  at  all 
times  of  the  year  ;  moreover,  it  has  always  been  the  policy 
of  the  Swiss  Government  not  only  to  provide  for  them,  but 
also  to  make  the  country  attractive  to  them.  The  result 
has  shown  the  wisdom  of  the  policy.  Indeed,  the  foreign 
tourist  has  become  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  income  of 
the  Swiss  people,  and  the  latter  profit  by  the  transaction 
to  the  amount  of  about  forty  million  dollars  a  year. 

About  all  the  raw  material  used  in  manufacture  must 
be  imported.  The  cotton  is  purchased  mainly  from  the 
United  States,  and  enters  by  way  of  Marseille.  The  raw 
silk  is  purchased  from  Italy,  China,  and  Japan.  Coal, 
sugar,  food-stuffs,  and  steel  are  purchased  from  Germany, 
and  this  state  supplies  about  half  the  imports.  From  the 
United  States  are  purchased  wheat,  cotton,  and  coal-oil. 

The  manufactures  are  intended  for  export.     The   fine 

*  The  St.  Gotthard  tunnel  is  almost  nine  and  one-half  miles  long  ;  the 
Arlberg  tunnel  is  six  and  one-half  miles  in  length.  The  tunnel  now  near- 
ing  completion  under  the  Simplon  Pass  is  more  than  twelve  miles  long. 
Five  railways  cross  the  northern  frontier  into  Germany,  and  German 
commerce  profits  most  by  them. 


334  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

cotton  textiles  sold  to  the  United  States  are  worth  far 
more  than  the  raw  cotton  purchased  therefrom.  Silk  tex- 
tiles, straw  wares,  toys,  watches,  jewelry,  and  dairy  prod- 
ucts are  leading  exports.  The  surrounding  states  are  the 
chief  buyers,  and  none  of  them  competes  with  Switzerland 
to  any  extent  in  the  character  of  the  exports. 

Geneva,  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Rhone  Valley,  is  the 
chief  trade  depot ;  it  is  noted  especially  for  the  manufact- 
ure of  watches,  of  which  many  hundred  thousand  are  made 
yearly.  Zurich  is  the  centre  of  manufactures  of  textiles 
and  fine  machinery.  The  silk-brocade  industry  is  centred 
chiefly  in  this  city  and  Basel. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DISCUSSION 

Why  did  not  France  prosper  commercially  prior  to  the  time  of 
the  revolution  of  1793? 

What  are  the  chief  natural  advantages  of  the  state  in  favor  of 
commercial  development  ? 

In  what  ways  have  the  natural  disadvantages  of  Switzerland 
been  overcome  ? 

How  has  the  loss  of  her  colonies  affected  the  industrial  devel- 
opment of  Spain  ? 

Comparing  Spain  and  Italy,  which  has  the  better  situation  with 
reference  to  the  Suez  Canal  traffic  ? 

From  the  Statesman's  Year-Book  find  the  amount  of  foreign 
trade  of  each  state. 

From  the  Abstract  of  Statistics  find  the  trade  of  each  one  with 
the  United  States. 

FOR  COLLATERAL  READING  AND  REFERENCE 

Adams's  New  Empire,  pp.  160-168. 
Fiske's  Discovery  of  America,  Vol.  II,  Chapter  XL 
Procure  for  inspection  specimens  of  raw  silk  and  also  of  the 
choice  textile  goods  made  in  these  states. 


CHAPTEE  XXVIII 
EUROPE— THE  DANUBE  AND  BALKAN  STATES 

The  Danube  and  Balkan  states  derive  their  commercial 
importance  partly  from  the  large  area  in  which  bread-stuffs 
may  be  produced,  and  also  because  the  valley  of  the  Dan- 
ube has  become  an  overland  trade-route  of  growing  im- 
portance between  the  Suez  Canal  and  the  North  Sea. 

Austria- Hungary. — This  empire  is  composed  of  the 
two  monarchies,  Austria  and  Hungary,  each  practically 
self-governed,  but  united  under  a  single  general  govern- 
ment. The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  walled  in  by  the 
ranges  of  the  Alps  and  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 

The  region  known  as  the  Tyrol  is  topographically  con- 
tinuous with  Switzerland,  and  the  people  have  Swiss  char- 
acteristics. Galicia,  northeast  of  the  Carpathian  Moun- 
tains, the  fragment  of  Poland  that  fell  to  Austria  at  the 
time  of  partition,  is  a  part  of  the  great  Russian  plain. 
Bohemia,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  Keltic  peoples, 
whom  Ca3sar  called  the  Boii,  comprises  the  upper  part  of  the 
Elbe  river-basin.  Its  natural  commercial  outlet  is  Ger- 
many, but  the  race-hatred  which  the  Czechs  have  for  the 
Germans,  retards  commercial  progress.  Hungary  is  a 
country  of  plains  occupying  the  lower  basin  of  the  Danube. 
The  Huns  are  of  Asian  origin.  Austria  proper  occupies 
the  upper  valley  of  the  Danube,  adjoining  Germany;  the 
country  and  the  people  are  Germanic. 

To  the  student  of  history  it  is  a  surprise  that  a  country 
of  such  diverse  peoples,  having  but  little  in  common  save 

335 


336  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

mutual  race-hatred,  should  hold  together  under  the  same 
general  government.  The  explanation,  however,  is  found 
in  the  topography  of  the  region.  The  basin  of  the  Danube 
is  a  great  food-producing  region,  and  the  upper  valley  of 
the  Elbe  River  forms  the  easiest  passage  from  the  Black 
to  the  Baltic  Sea.  The  topography  therefore  gives  the 
greater  part  of  the  country  commercial  unity. 

The  climate  and  surface  of  the  low  plains  of  Hungary 
are  much  the  same  as  those  of  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota. 
Grain-growing  and  stock-raising  are  the  chief  employ- 
ments. High  freight  rates,  a  long  haul,  and  the  competi- 
tion of  Russia  and  Roumania  have  retarded  the  develop- 
ment of  these  industries,  however.  Bohemia  is  likewise 
a  grain-growing  country,  and  the  easy  route  into  Germany 
through  the  Elbe  Valley  makes  the  industry  a  profitable 
one.     Bohemia  is  also  in  the  sugar-beet  area. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  coal  in  Austria,  but  most  of  it 
is  unfit  for  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel.  Steel  manu- 
facture, however,  is  carried  on,  the  industry  being  protected 
by  the  distance  from  the  German  steel-making  centres. 
The  lead-mines  about  Bleiberg  (or  "  Leadville  ")  are  very 
productive ;  at  Idria  are  the  only  quicksilver-mines  in  Eu- 
rope that  compete  with  those  of  Almaden,  Spain.  The 
salt-mines  near  Krakow  are  in  a  mass  of  rock-salt  twelve 
hundred  feet  thick. 

Most  of  the  manufactured  products  are  for  home  con- 
sumption. American  cotton  and  home-grown  wool  supply 
the  greater  part  of  the  textiles.  The  flour-mills  are 
equipped  with  the  very  best  of  machinery,  and  much  of  the 
product  is  for  export  to  Germany  and  the  countries  to  the 
south.  The  manufactures  that  have  made  the  state  famous, 
however,  are  gloves  and  glassware,  both  of  which  are  widely 
exported.  The  sand,  fluxes,  and  coloring  minerals  of  Bo- 
hemian glassware  are  all  peculiar  to  the  region,  and  the 


EUROPE— THE   DANUBE   AND   BALKAN   STATES      337 

wares,  therefore,  cannot  be  imitated  elsewhere.  The  gloves 
are  made  from  the  skins  of  Hungarian  sheep  and  goats. 

The  railways  are  not  well  organized,  and  the  mileage  is 
insufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  country.  Ludwig  Canal 
(in  Germany)  connects  the  Danube  with  the  Main,  a  navi- 
gable tributary  of  the  Ehine ;  the  Elbe  is  navigable  from  a 
point  above  Prague  to  the  Baltic ;  the  Moravian  Gate  opens 
a  passage  from  Vienna  northward ;  the  Iron  Gate,  through 
which  the  Danube  flows,  is  the  route  to  the  Black  Sea ; 
Semmering  Pass  and  its  tunnel  is  the  gateway  to  the  ports 
of  the  Adriatic.  These  great  routes  practically  converge  at 
Vienna,  which  also  is  the  great  railway  centre  of  the  empire. 

The  foreign  trade  consists  mainly  of  the  export  of  food- 
stuffs (of  which  sugar  and  eggs  are  heavy  items),  fine  cabi- 
net ware,  woollen  textiles  (made  from  imported  wool),  barley 
and  malt,  and  fine  glassware.  Much  of  the  German  and 
Italian  wine  is  sent  to  market  in  casks  made  of  Austrian 
stock ;  the  coal  goes  mainly  to  Italy.  The  imports  are  raw 
cotton  from  the  United  States  and  Egypt,  wool,  silk,  and 
tobacco.  Coal  is  both  exported  and  imported.  The  United 
States  sells  to  Austria-Hungary  cotton,  pork,  and  corn — 
buying  porcelain  ware,  glassware,  and  gloves,  amounting 
to  about  one-fifth  the  value  of  the  exports. 

Vienna,  the  capital,  is  the  financial  centre  and  commer- 
cial clearing-house  of  central  Europe ;  it  has  also  extensive 
manufactures.  Budapest  is  the  great  focal  point  of  Hun- 
garian railways  and  commerce.  Prague  controls  the  coal, 
textile,  and  glass  trade  of  Bohemia.  Lemberg  is  the  me- 
tropolis of  Galicia.  The  states  of  Liechtenstein,  Bosnia, 
and  Herzegovina  are  commercially  under  the  control  of 
Austria. 

The  Lower  Danube  States.— Koumania  and  Bulgaria, 
the  plain  of  the  lower  Danube,  are  enclosed  by  the  Carpa- 
thian and  Balkan  ranges.     They  constitute  a  great  wheat- 


338 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


field  whose  chief  commercial  outlets  are  the  Iron  Gate  into 
Germanic  EurojDe,  and  the  Suliiia  mouth  of  the  Danube 
into  the  Black  Sea.  The  growing  of  maize  for  home  con- 
sumption and  wheat  for  export  form  the  only  noteworthy 
industries.  Most  of  the  grain  is  shipped  up  the  Danube 
and  sold  in  Great  Britaiu  and  Germany. 

From  the  Iron  Gate  to  the  Black  Sea  the  Danube  is  held 
as  an  international  highway,  and  the  control  of  its  naviga- 
tion is  directed  by  a  commission  of  the  various  European 
powers,  having  its  head-quarters  at  Galatz,  Boumania. 


TUKKEY 

AM>  (N, 

GREECE, 

Railroads  : 
Steamship 

SCALE   OF   STATU 
I 


Routes: £Wt^^"SfcJ?>    \       VX^**^* 


"to   PIR.CUS 


In  the  Balkan  Mountains  is  the  famous  Vale  of  Roses 
which  furnishes  about  half  the  world's  supply  of  attar-of- 
roses.  The  petals  of  the  damask  rose  are  pressed  between 
layers  of  cloth  saturated  with  lard.  The  latter  absorbs  the 
essential  oil,  from  which  it  is  easily  removed.  About  half 
a  ton  of  roses  are  required  to  make  a  pound  of  the  attar. 
Kazanlik,  noted  also  for  rugs,  is  the  great  market  for  attar. 
Galatz  and  BusfcJiuk  are  grain -markets  and  river-ports ; 
from  the  latter  a  railway  extends  to  Varna,  the  chief  port 
of  the  Black  Sea.    From  Sofia,  near  the  Bulgarian  frontier, 


EUROPE— THE  DANUBE  AND  BALKAN   STATES        339 

a  trunk  line  of  railway  extends  through  Budapest  to  west- 
ern Europe. 

Turkey-in-Europe. — The  European  part  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire  has  long  been  politically  known  as  the  "Sick 
Man  "  of  Europe,  and  so  far  as  the  industries  and  com- 
merce of  the  state  are  concerned,  there  is  no  excuse  for  its 
separate  existeuce  as  a  state.  Its  political  existence,  how- 
ever, is  regarded  as  a  necessity,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
Russians  from  obtaining  military  and  naval  control  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  Black  Seas,  and  thereby  becoming  a 
menace  to  all  western  Europe.  Less  than  one-half  the 
people  are  Turks ;  the  greater  part  of  the  population  con- 
sists of  Armenians,  Jews,  Magyars,  and  Latins. 

Most  of  the  country  is  rugged  and  unfit  for  grain-grow- 
ing. The  internal  government  is  bad,  the  taxes  are  so 
ruinous  that  the  agricultural  resources  are  undeveloped, 
and  every  sort  of  farming  is  primitive.  In  many  instances 
the  taxes  levied  on  the  growing  crops  become  practical 
confiscation  when  they  are  collected.  Much  of  the  cul- 
tivable land  is  idle  because  there  are  no  means  of  getting 
the  crops  to  market. 

Grapes  and  wine,  silk,  opium,  mohair  and  wool,  valonia 
(acorn  cups  used  in  tanning  leather),  figs,  hides,  cigarettes, 
and  carpets  are  the  leading  exports,  and  these  about  half' 
pay  for  the  American  cotton  textiles,  woollen  goods,  coal- 
oil,  sugar,  and  other  food-stuffs  imported.  Choice  Mocha 
coffee  is  imported  for  home  use,  and  poorer  grades  are 
exported.  Most  of  the  foreign  commerce  is  in  the  hands 
of  English  and  French  merchants.  Armenians,  Jews, 
and  Greeks  are  the  native  middlemen  and  traders. 

The  native  population  is  subject  to  the  Sultan,  whose 
rule  is  absolute  ;  most  foreign  merchants  and  residents  are 
permitted  by  treaties  to  remain  subject  to  the  regulations 
of  the  consuls. 


340 


COMMERCIAL    GEOGRAPHY 


HARBOR   OF    CONSTANTINOPLE 


Constantinople  is  the  capital.  Its  situation  on  the  Bos- 
phorus  is  such  that  under  any  other  European  government 

it  would  command  a  tremen- 
dous foreign  commerce.  It 
is  naturally  the  focal  point 
of  the  trade  between  Europe 
and  Asia.  A  trunk  line 
of  railway  connects  the  city 
with  Paris.  Salonica  is  the 
port  of  western  Turkey,  and 
is  likewise  connected  by  rail 
with  western  Europe.  A 
great  deal  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  state  is  now 
landed  at  this  port. 

The  chief  possessions  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  are  Asia 
Minor,  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Arabia. 

Greece. — Greece  is  a  rugged  peninsula,  no  part  of  which 
is  more  than  forty  miles  from  the  sea.  The  country  is 
without  resources  in  the  way  of  coal,  timber,  or  available 
capital.  Its  former  commercial  position,  in  ancient  times, 
was  due  largely  to  the  silver-mines  near  Ergasteria,  and 
subsequently  to  the  gold-mines  of  eastern  Macedonia ; 
these,  however,  are  no  longer  productive. 

There  is  but  little  land  suitable  for  farming,  and  not  far 
from  one-half  the  bread-stuffs  must  be  imported.  Much  of 
the  timber  has  been  destroyed,  and  this  has  resulted  in  a 
deterioration  not  only  of  the  water-power,  but  of  the  culti- 
vable lands  as  well.  The  railway  lines  are  short  and  their 
business  is  local ;  there  are  practically  no  trunk  line  con- 
nections with  the  great  centres  of  commerce. 

The  harbors  and  the  natural  position  of  the  country  are 
its  best  remaining  resources.  The  Greeks  are  born  sailors, 
and  the  country  is  in  the  pathway  of  European  and  Asian 
commerce.     Most  of  the  grain-trade  between  the  Black  and 


EUROPE — THE  DANUBE   AND   BALKAN   STATES         341 

Mediterranean  Seas  is  controlled  by  Greek  merchants, 
and  the  Greeks  are  everywhere  in  evidence  in  the  carry- 
ing trade  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  construction  of  the 
Corinthian  canal  has  also  given  Greek  commerce  a  ma- 
terial impetus. 

The  chief  exports  are  Corinthian  grapes  — commonly 
known  as  "  currants  " — fruit,  and  iron  ore  from  Ergasteria. 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Belgium  are  the  chief  buyers 
of  the  fruit-crop.  The  exports  scarcely  pay  for  the  Amer- 
ican cotton,  Russian  wheat,  and  the  timber  products  that  are 
purchased  abroad.  There  has  been  a  material  growth  in 
the  manufacture  of  cotton,  woollens,  and  silk  in  the  past 
few  years,  much  of  the  work  being  done  in  households. 
Athens  is  the  capital  and  largest  city.  The  Pirceus  and 
Patras  are  the  chief  ports. 

Servia  and  Montenegro  are  stock-growing  countries. 
The  former  has  suffered  greatly  from  misgovernment  and 
the  waste  of  its  resources.  Wine-cask  stock  and  cattle  are 
sold  to  Austria,  which  has  five -sixths  of  its  trade.  Belgrade 
is  its  metropolis.  Tobacco  and  live-stock  are  exported 
from  Montenegro  to  Austria. 

QUESTIONS    FOR   DISCUSSION 

On  a  good  map  of  central  Europe  trace  an  all-water  route 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Danube  to  the  ports  of  the  lower  Rhine 
and  the  North  Sea  ;  what  connection  have  the  cities  of  Ratisbon 
and  Lemberg  with  this  route  ? 

How  do  the  forests  of  these  states  affect  the  wine  industry  of 
Germany  ? 

From  the  Statesman's  Year-Book  find  the  amount  and  move- 
ment of  the  exports  and  imports  of  these  countries. 

From  the  Abstract  of  Statistics  find  the  volume  of  trade  of 
these  countries  with  the  United  States. 

FOR     COLLATERAL     REFERENCE 
Great  Canals  of  the  World— p.  4089. 
A  good  map  of  central  Europe. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
EUROPE-ASIA—THE    RUSSIAN   EMPIRE 

The  great  plain  of  Eurasia,  which  borders  about  half 
the  circuit  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  is  undivided  by  topo- 
graphic barriers  or  boundaries.     It  is  physically  a  unit. 

Russia. — Russia  comprises  more  than  one-half  the  area 
of  Europe ;  the  Russian  Empire  embraces  about  one-half 
of  Europe  and  Asia  combined,  and  constitutes  more  than 
one-seventh  of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth.  East  and 
west,  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Vladivostok,  the  distance  is 
about  six  thousand  miles.  It  has  a  similar  position  with 
respect  to  southern  Europe  and  China  as  has  Canada  to 
the  United  States. 

In  latitude  the  country  is  unfortunately  situated.  North 
of  the  latitude  of  St.  Petersburg  the  climate  is  too  cold  to 
grow  bread-stuffs;  a  large  part  of  the  country  is,  therefore, 
unproductive.  The  central  belt  is  forest-covered ;  the 
southern  part,  or  "  black  earth  "  belt,  comprises  the  greater 
part  of  the  productive  lands,  and  this  region  is  the  chief 
granary  of  Europe. 

Russia  is  an  agricultural  country.  Maize  and  rye  grown 
for  home  consumption,  and  wheat  for  export,  are  the  chief 
products.  Flax  is  a  leading  export  product,  and  the  Rus- 
sian crop  constitutes  about  four-fifths  of  the  world's  supply. 
Lands  too  remote  from  markets  for  grain-growing  produce 
cattle  and  sheep,  which  are  grown  mainly  for  their  hides 
and  tallow.  The  wool  of  the  Don  is  a  very  coarse  textile 
that  is  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  American  carpets ; 

343 


344  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

that  of  the  arid  plateaus  of  the  southern  country  is  a  fine 
rug  wool. 

Agriculture  in  Kussia  is  on  a  much  lower  plane  than  in 
western  Europe.  Most  of  the  land  is  owned  in  large 
estates.  Individual  farming  is  rare,  land  tillage  being  usu- 
ally a  community  affair.  A  village  community  rents  or 
purchases  a  tract  of  land,  and  the  latter  is  allotted  to  the 
families  composing  it,  a  part  of  the  land  being  reserved 
for  pasturage.  The  business  is  transacted  by  "elders,"  or 
trustees,  who  exercise  a  general  management  and  super- 
vision over  the  "  mir,"  or  community. 

The  methods  of  farming  are  not  the  best,  and  an  acre 
of  land  produces  scarcely  one-third  as  much  as  the  same 
area  is  made  to  yield  in  other  states.  The  farming  class,  or 
peasantry,  was  in  a  condition  of  serfdom  until  within  a 
few  years.  Poverty  unfits  them  to  compete  with  farm- 
ers of  western  Europe ;  moreover,  the  laws  of  land  owner- 
ship and  tenure  also  serve  to  discourage  farming. 

The  metal  and  mineral  resources  are  very  great.  Iron 
ore  is  abundant,  and  the  yearly  output  of  both  is  greatly 
increasing.  There  are  extensive  deposits  in  southern 
Russia,  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  in  Poland.  Coal  of 
good  quality  is  plentiful,  and  coal  mining  is  encouraged  by 
a  heavy  tariff  on  the  foreign  coal  that  enters  regions  where 
the  home  product  is  available.  The  most  productive  coal- 
fields are  those  of  the  lower  Don  River  and  of  Poland. 

Gold  is  obtained  in  various  parts  of  Siberia  and  in  the 
Ural  Mountains,  but  scarcely  enough  is  mined  for  the  re- 
quirements of  coinage.  Copper  is  also  mined  in  the  Ural 
and  Caucasus  Mountains.  More  than  nine-tenths  of  the 
world's  supply  of  platinum  is  also  obtained  in  the  Ural 
Mountains.  The  petroleum  fields  of  Transcaucasia  have 
a  yearly  output  a  little  greater  than  those  of  the  United 
States. 


EUROPE-ASIA— THE   RUSSIAN  EMPIRE  345 

The  forest  area  is  surpassed  only  by  the  timber  belt  of 
North  America,  both  of  which  are  in  about  the  same  lati- 
tudes. This  area,  within  a  very  few  years,  is  destined  to 
be  the  chief  lumber  supply  of  all  Europe.  Moreover,  the 
forests,  the  grain-growing  lands,  and  the  iron  and  coal  con- 
stitute national  resources  which  are  surpassed  in  do  other 
countries  save  the  United  States  and  China. 

The  Russian  Government  has  done  much  to  encourage 
manufactures.  Steel-making  in  the  Ural  district,  in  Po- 
land, and  in  the  iron  regions  of  the  Don  has  progressed  to 
the  extent  that  home-made  railway  material  and  rolling 
stock  are  now  generally  used.  Farming  machinery  is  made 
in  the  cities  of  the  grain-growing  region.  The  manufacture 
of  cotton,  woollen,  and  linen  fabrics  has  developed  to  the 
extent  that  the  state  is  becoming  an  exporter  rather  than 
an  importer  of  such  goods. 

Kail  way  building  has  progressed  under  government 
aid,  and  about  two-thirds  of  the  37,000  miles  of  track 
are  owned  by  the  state.  The  Transsiberian  Railway  con- 
necting Vladivostok  with  the  trunk  lines  of  Europe  was 
built  by  the  state  both  for  strategic  and  economic  pur- 
poses. Large  bodies  of  emigrants  are  carried  into  Si- 
beria at  nominal  rates  and  are  settled  on  lands  that 
are  practically  free.  The  return  cargoes  consist  of  Chi. 
nese  products — mainly  silk  textiles  and  tea — destined  for 
western  Europe. 

A  network  of  railways  covers  the  grain-growing  districts  ; 
trunk  lines,  mainly  for  strategic  purposes,  extend  through 
Russian  Turkestan  to  the  Chinese  border.  For  many 
years  Russia  has  endeavored  to  acquire  the  territory  that 
would  afford  commercial  outlets  to  the  Indian  Ocean  and 
into  China.  In  this  the  state  has  been  thwarted  by  two 
great  powers— Great  Britain  and  Japan.  The  construction 
of  canals  and  the  improvements  of  river-navigation  are  un- 


346  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

der  government  management,  and  the  internal  water- ways 
aggregate  about  fifty  thousand  miles  of  navigation. 

The  foreign  commerce  is  changing  in  character  as  manu- 
factures develop.  Wheat,  flour,  timber  products,  flax, 
and  petroleum  are  the  chief  exjDorts.  Cotton,  tea,  wool, 
and  coal  are  the  leading  imports,  the  first-named  coming 
mainly  from  the  United  States.  Germany,  Great  Britain, 
France,  Holland,  and  the  United  States  are  the  chief  Eu- 
ropean countries  utilizing  Russian  trade.  The  commerce 
between  Russia  and  China  is  growing  rapidly.  The  Trans- 
siberian  railway  is  its  chief  northern  outlet,  and  a  branch 
of  this  road,  now  under  construction,  extends  through  to 
the  leading  commercial  centres  of  Manchuria,  to  Port 
Arthur.  A  considerable  amount  of  manufactured  goods 
is  sent  to  Asia  Minor  and  the  Iran  countries. 

The  most  available  ports  opening  into  the  Atlantic  are 
on  the  Baltic  Sea,  but  these  are  blocked  by  ice  in  winter ; 
the  best  ports  are  on  the  Black  Sea,  but  the  Russians  do 
not  control  the  navigable  waters  that  connect  them  with 
the  Atlantic. 

Much  of  the  internal  trade  is  carried  on  by  means  of 
annual  fairs.  The  most  important  of  these  are  held  at 
Nijni,  (lower)  Novgorod,  Kharkof,  Kief,  and  other  points. 
At  the  first-named  fair  goods  to  the  amount  of  $80,000,000 
have  changed  hands  during  a  single  season,  and  the  annual 
fair  is  the  recognized  common  ground  on  which  the  oriental 
traders  meet  the  buyers  of  European  and  American  firms. 

Unlike  the  schemes  of  colonization  of  other  European 
states,  the  various  possessions  of  the  Czar  are  practically 
in  a  single  area,  the  dependencies  being  contiguous.  The 
lines  between  them,  with  few  exceptions,  are  political 
rather  than  natural  boundaries. 

St.  Petersburg,  the  capital,  is  the  centre  of  finance  and 
trade.     Riga  is  the  port  from  which  most  of  the  lumber  is 


EUROPE-ASIA — THE   RUSSIAN   EMPIRE  347 

exported  ;  it  receives  the  coal  purchased  from  Great  Britain 
for  the  factories  of  the  Baltic  coast.  The  harbor  of  Riga 
is  not  greatly  obstructed  by  ice.  Archangel  has  an  export 
trade  of  lumber  and  flax  during  the  few  months  when  the 
White  Sea  is  free  from  ice.  Odessa  and  Bostof  are  the 
grain-markets  of  the  empire.  Astrakhan  is  the  centre  of 
trade  for  the  Iran  countries,  and  Baku  is  the  petroleum- 
market.  Moscow  is  the  chief  focal  point  of  the  railways ; 
and  in  consequence  has  become  a  great  centre  of  manu- 
facture and  trade.  Warsaw,  next  to  Moscow,  is  the  most 
important  city. 

Siberia. — This  great  territory  resembles  Russia  in  sur- 
face and  climatic  features.  Like  the  former  "  west  "  of  the 
United  States,  Siberia  is  the  open  "east"  into  which  much 
of  the  surplus  population  of  Russia,  Germany,  and  the 
Scandinavian  countries  is  moving,  attracted  by  fine  farm- 
ing lands.  The  European  emigrant  becomes  a  producer 
when  settled  in  Siberia,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  consumer 
of  Russian  manufactures.  In  five  years  more  than  one 
million  people  thus  became  occupants  of  the  new  country 
in  Siberia.  Russian  trade  is  encouraged  by  a  heavy  tariff 
on  foreign  goods  brought  into  Siberia. 

Tobolsk,  Tomsk,  and  Semipalatinsk  are  collecting  sta- 
tions for  Siberian  products,  and  each  is  built  on  navigable 
waters.  Irkutsk  receives  the  caravan  trade  that  goes  from 
Peking  through  Urga  and  Kiakhta,  the  frontier  post  of 
Chinese  trade.  Vladivostok  is  the  great  Pacific  outlet  and 
the  terminus  of  the  Transsiberian  Railway.  Port  Arthur 
and  Ta-lien-iuan,  in  China,  are  occupied  by  the  Russians 
under  a  lease  of  twenty-five  years. 

Bokhara  and  Khiva  are  Russian  vassal  states.  The 
former  was  acquired  chiefly  as  a  trade-route.  A  railway 
from  Krasnovodsk  on  the  Caspian  Sea  extends  through 
Merv,  Bokhara,  and  Samarkand  to  Kashgar,  where  it  meets 


348  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

the  caravan  trade  from  central  China.  The  building  of  this 
railway  has  caused  a  great  development  of  cotton-grow- 
ing in  these  countries,  which  furnish  Europe  and  America 
with  the  choice  Afghan,  Khiva,  and  Bokhara  rugs. 

Transcaucasia,  now  joined  to  Russia,  is  a  part  of  the 
plateau  of  Iran.  A  railway  extends  across  the  country 
from  Batum  to  Baku,  connecting  the  Black  and  Caspian 
Seas.  Transcaucasia  is  the  petroleum  region  of  the  East. 
It  is  also  noted  for  the  Shirvan,  Kabistan,  Daghestan,  and 
Kazak  rugs  which  are  sold  all  over  Europe  and  America. 
The  so-called  "  Cashmere  "  rugs  are  not  a  product  of  Kash- 
mir, but  are  made  in  the  town  of  Shemalca.  Kabistan  rugs 
are  made  in  Kuba.  Kazak  fabrics  are  usually  the  sleeping- 
blankets  of  the  Kazak  (Cossack)  rough -riders. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  DISCUSSION 

How  will  the  development  of  the  coal,  iron,  and  lumber  re- 
sources most  likely  affect  the  industrial  future  of  Russia  ? 

Discuss  the  policy  of  Siberian  immigration; — what  are  its  ad- 
vantages to  German  colonists  ? 

From  the  map  accompanying  this  chapter  show  how  the  tribu- 
tary streams  of  the  great  rivers  have  served  to  extend  Russian 
commerce  through  Siberia. 

Note  the  situationof  the  cities  and  towns  of  Siberia  with  refer- 
ence to  the  rivers. 

What  effect  has  the  high  latitude  of  Russia  on  its  agricultural 
industries  ? 

From  the  Statesman's  Year-Book  make  a  list  of  the  leading 
exports  and  imports  of  Russia  by  articles,  and  also  the  volume  of 
trade  with  other  countries. 

From  the  Abstract  of  Statistics  find  the  statistics  of  trade  be- 
tween Russia  and  the  United  States. 

FOR  COLLATERAL    READING    AND    REFERENCE 
Commercial  life  in  Russia — preferably  from  the  article,  "Rus- 
sia," in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica. 

For  a  rug  of  the  Caucasus  type,  see  illustration,  p.  351 ;  compare 
the  Kabistan  with  the  Persian  piece — which  has  the  floral  and 
which  the  geometric  figures? 


CHAPTER  XXX 
THE    IRAN    PLATEAU    AND    ARABIA 

The  countries  of  the  Iran  plateau  extend  from  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  to  the  valley  of  the  Indus  River.  The  Ara- 
bian Peninsula  is  not  a  part  of  it,  but  its  climate  and 
general  character  are  similar.  The  Iran  countries  are  ex- 
ceedingly rugged,  and  a  great  part  of  their  surface  is  more 


THE   RUG-MAKING  COUNTRIES 


than  a  mile  above  sea-level.  The  climate  is  one  of  great 
extremes;  the  summer  hot-waves  and  the  winter  hurri- 
canes are  probably  unknown  elsewhere  in  severity.  The 
greater  part  of  Arabia  is  an  unhabitable  desert. 

The  rigorous  conditions  of   surface  and  climate  have 
placed   their  stamp  upon  the  population  of  the  region. 


350 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


They  are  full  of  the  intelligent  cunning  and  ferocity  that 
mark  people  living  under  such  conditions  of  environment. 
In  many  parts  the  sterile  soil  and  arid  climate  force  the 
sparse  population  into  nomadic  habits  of  life  and  preda- 
tory   pursuits.      For   the   greater  part,  the  land   hardly 


AN  ANTIQUE  TREE-OF-LIFE,    KERMANSHAH  (PERSIAN)   RUG 

yields  enough  food-stuffs  for  the  population,  and  any  great 
development  of  agriculture  is  out  of  the  question.  The 
flood-plain  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  a  few  of  the 
river-valleys  are  highly  productive. 

Before  the  Christian  era   several  trade-routes  between 
Europe  and  the  Orient  lay  across  this  region,  and  along 


THE   IRAN    PLATEAU   AND   ARABIA 


351 


tlie  caravan  routes  there  were  the  usual  industries  pertain- 
ing  to  commercial  peoples.  The  cities  of  Sinope,  Trebi- 
zond,  Astrabad,  Phasis,  Mashad,  and  Bactra  (now  Balkh) 
grew  into  existence  along  one  of  the  northern  routes. 
Tyre,  Nineveh,  Tarsus,  Palmyra,  Babylon,  and  Persepolis 
were  founded  along  one  or  another  of  the  southern  routes. 
Of  these,  Trebizond  only  retains  its  importance,  being  a 
seaport  with  a  considerable  trade.     The  commerce  that 


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i&&& 

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S 

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h-hK^h^h^P^^hh^: 


A  KABISTAN   RUG— CAUCASUS   DISTRICT 

once  passed  over  this  route  was  crushed  out  of  existence 
during  the  invasions  by  Jenghis  Khan. 

Of  the  various  industries  of  the  Iran  plateau,  practically 
but  one  extends  beyond  its  borders,  namely,  the  manufact- 
ure of  the  textile  fabrics  known  as  Oriental  rugs.  These 
are  unique ;  they  are  made  of  materials,  colored  with  dyes, 
and  are  ornamented  with  designs  that  cannot  be  success- 
fully imitated  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  The  filling  of 
the  rugs  consists  of  fine  wool,  selected  not  only  from  par- 
ticular localities,  but  also  from  certain  parts  of  the  fleece. 
The  dye-stuffs  are  common  to  other  parts  of  the  world,  and 


352  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

their  names — indigo,  saffron,  coccus,  madder,  and  orchil — 
are  familiar.  But  both  the  wool  and  the  dye-stuffs  possess 
qualities  imparted  to  them  by  soil  and  climate  that  are  not 
found  elsewhere. 

The  absence  of  floors,  and  of  the  furniture  found  in 
European  dwellings,  make  the  rugs  essential  household 
articles  rather  than  luxuries.  The  hearth-rug,  the  bath- 
mat,  the  divan-cover,  the  sleeping-blanket,  and  the  saddle- 
mat  must  be  regarded  as  necessities.  Eeligion  also  has  its 
requirements,  and  the  prayer  rug,  sometimes  ornamented 
with  the  hands  of  the  Prophet,  is  a  part  of  every  household 
equipment,  whether  of  the  nomadic  Arab  or  the  wealthy 
merchant.  Each  district  and  people  have  their  own  de- 
signs and  methods  of  workmanship,  and  the  rugs  of  each 
are  easily  distinguished.  * 

For  the  greater  part  these  are  gathered  by  caravans  and 
conveyed  to  convenient  shipping-points.  Nearly  all  the 
cottage-made  product  is  obtained  in  this  manner.  As  a 
rule  the  rugs  are  named  from  the  town  or  district  in  which 
they  are  made.  Smyrna  and  Constantinople  are  the  chief 
ports  of  shipment.  Many  of  them  find  their  way  to 
European  dealers,  but  New  York  is  probably  the  largest 
rug-market  in  the  world.     The  great  majority  are  retailed 

*  Persian  rugs  are  the  finest.  As  a  rule  the  designs  are  floral  and 
many  of  them  contain  legendary  history  worked  in  fantastic  but  beautiful 
patterns.  Among  those  of  especial  merit  are  the  Kermanshah  tree-of-life 
fabrics,  now  somewhat  rare.  The  rugs  of  Tabriz  and  Shiraz  are  also  of 
high  value.  In  general,  Persian  fabrics  are  characterized  by  very  fine 
weaving,  a  short  pile,  and  elaborate  designs.  Turkoman  rugs  are  usually 
a  rich  brown  or  maroon  in  color,  and  are  apt  to  contain  slightly  elongated 
octagonal  figures.  The  Bokhara  and  Khiva-Bokhara,  or  Afghan  rugs,  are 
the  best  examples.  The  Baluchistan  rugs  are  usually  very  dark  in  color, 
with  bright  red  designs  and  striped  ends  of  cotton  warp.  Turkish  rugs  are 
made  almost  wholly  in  Asia  Minor  or  Anatolia.  Large  carpets  of  Ameri- 
can and  European  designs  are  made  at  Ushak  and  Smyrna.  "  Smyrna  " 
rugs  are  made  in  Philadelphia. 


THE   IRAN   PLATEAU   AND   ARABIA  353 

at  from  ten  to  fifty  dollars  each ;  choice  fabrics,  however, 
bring  from  three  hundred  to  ten  thousand  dollars.  Ori- 
ental rugs  are  hand-woven,  and  a  weaver  frequently  spends 
several  years  on  a  single  piece,  earning  perhaps  less  than 
ten  cents  a  day.  The  factory-made  rugs  are  inferior  to 
the  cottage-manufactured  product. 

Turkish  Possessions. — Anatolia  is  the  common  name 
of  the  Turkish  possession  formerly  known  as  Asia  Minor. 
The  name  properly  belongs,  however,  to  only  a  small  part 
of  the  region.  The  Asiatic  possessions  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  comprise  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  Kurdistan,  Syria, 
Mesopotamia,  and  Arabia.  The  Armenians  are  the  com- 
mercial people  of  the  greater  part  of  this  region,  and  al- 
though thousands  have  been  massacred  because  of  Turk- 
ish hatred  of  them,  they  practically  wield  the  chief  power 
because  of  their  business  enterprise. 

During  the  Roman  occupation  many  miles  of  roads  were 
built  from  Constantinople  and  other  coast-points  to  the 
interior.  One  of  these  extended  to  Mesopotamia,  and  be- 
came a  much-travelled  route  of  the  trade  which  centred  at 
Constantinople.  Within  recent  years  German  capitalists 
have  built  railways  along  these  roads,  thereby  creating  a 
considerable  export  trade  in  fruit,  rugs,  and  mohair  cloth. 

Angora  and  Konieh  (Ico7iium)  are  important  marts. 
Trcbizond  is  the  chief  port  of  the  Black  Sea,  but  it  lacks 
railway  connections  with  the  interior.  Smyrna  is  the 
chief  port  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  it  are  shipped 
to  European  and  American  markets  the  fruit  and  textile 
fabrics  that  have  made  its  importance.  In  Syria,  Damas- 
cus, one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  the  world,  is  the  centre  of  a 
considerable  trade  in  textile  manufactures.  Rugs,  dates, 
figs,  and  damask  fabrics  are  exported  to  Europe  through 
Beirut,  its  seaport,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail. 
Much    of  the   stuffs   exported  is   gathered   from   Persia. 


354  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Yafa  is  the  port  of  Jerusalem.     Bagdad  is  the  chief  trade- 
centre  of  Mesopotamia. 

Arabia. — Arabia  is  nominally  a  Turkish  possession,  but 
the  coast-regions  only  are  under  the  control  of  the  Sultan. 
The  interior  is  peopled  by  nomadic  tribes,  who  do  not 
acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of  Turkey.  The  province  of 
Yemen,  on  the  Eed  Sea,  is  about  the  only  noteworthy  part 
of  the  peninsula.  Hides  and  Mocha  coffee,  gathered  by 
Arab  traders,  are  shipped  from  the  port  of  Hodeida. 
Mecca  is  the  yearly  meeting-place  of  thousands  of  Moham- 
medan pilgrims,  who  go  thither  as  a  religious  duty ;  it  is 
also  the  centre  from  which  Asiatic  cholera  radiates.  Aden, 
the  chief  coaling-station  of  the  British  Empire  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  is  also  a  free  port,  having  a  considerable 
trade  in  American  cotton  and  coal-oil. 

Although  Arabia  itself  is  practically  of  no  commercial 
importance,  the  same  cannot  be  said  of  the  Arabic  people. 
They  are  keen,  thrifty  traders,  and  as  brutal  in  their  in- 
stincts as  they  are  keen.  The  commerce  which  connects 
the  western  part  of  Asia  with  Europe  is  largely  of  their 
making.  They  collect  and  transport  the  goods  from  the 
interior,  delivering  them  to  Jewish  and  Armenian  middle- 
men, who  turn  them  over  to  European  and  American  mer- 
chants. Arab  traders  also  control  the  greater  part  of  the 
commerce  of  northern  Africa.  The  slave-trade,  which  is 
wholly  in  their  hands,  is  very  largely  the  key  to  the  situa- 
tion. A  party  of  slave-dealers  makes  an  attack  upon 
a  village  and,  after  massacring  all  who  are  not  able- 
bodied,  load  the  rest  with  the  goods  to  be  transported  to 
the  coast. 

Persia. — Persia  is  the  modernized  name  of  the  province 
now  called  Fars,  or  Farsistan.  Within  its  borders,  how- 
ever, the  name  Persia  is  almost  unknown  ;  the  native 
people   call    the   country  Iran.     In   the   times   of   Cyrus, 


THE   IRAN   PLATEAU    AND   ARABIA  355 

Xerxes,  and  Darius,  Persia  was  one  of  the  great  powers  of 
the  world.  The  cultivable  lands  produced  an  abundance 
of  food-stuffs.  The  mines  of  copper,  lead,  silver,  and  iron 
were  worked  to  their  utmost  extent,  and  the  chief  trade- 
routes  between  Europe  and  the  Orient  crossed  the  country 
to  the  Indus  River. 

The  conquest  by  Alexander  the  Great  changed  the 
course  of  trade  and  diverted  it  to  other  routes,  thus  de- 
priving the  country  of  much  of  its  revenue  ;  the  invasions 
of  the  Arabs  left  the  empire  a  hopeless  wreck.  Iran  blood 
dominates  the  country  at  the  present  time,  it  is  true,  but 
the  religion  of  Islam  does  not  encourage  any  material 
development,  and  the  industries  are  now  purely  local. 
There  is  no  organization  of  trade,  nor  any  system  of 
transportation  except  by  means  of  wretched  wagon-roads 
with  innumerable  toll-gates.  "  Turkish  "  tobacco,  opium, 
and  small  fruits  are  grown  for  export ;  silk  and  wool,  how- 
ever, are  the  most  important  crops.  The  former  is  manu- 
factured into  brocaded  textiles ;  the  latter  into  rugs  and 
carpets.  There  are  famous  pearl-fisheries  in  the  Persian 
Gulf. 

Tabriz,  situated  in  the  midst  of  an  agricultural  region, 
has  important  manufactures  of  shawls  and  silk  fabrics  of 
world  renown.  The  Tabriz  rugs  are  regarded  as  among 
the  finest  of  the  rug-maker's  art.  Shiraz,  the  former 
capital,  Kermanshah,  *  and  Hamadan  are  noted  for  rug  and 
carpet  manufactures.  Mashad  is  the  centre  of  the  trade 
with  Russia.  Bushire  and  Bender -Abbas  are  seaports,  but 
have  no  great  importance.  Most  of  the  trade  with  Russia 
passes  through  the  port  of  Trebizond. 

Afghanistan. — The  nomadic  tribes  that  inhabit  Afghan- 

*  The  most  valuable  Kermanshah  rug,  now  no  longer  made  there,  is 
the  tree-of-life  prayer-rug,  an  illustration  of  which  is  shown  on  p.  350. 
The  design  is  emblematic  of  the  story  of  the  Garden  of  Eden. 


356  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

istan  have  but  little  in  common  with  the  British  civilization 
that  is  slowly  but  surely  closing  in  upon  them,  and  driving 
them  from  routes  of  commerce.  A  considerable  local  traffic 
is  carried  on  between  Bokhara  and  Herat,  and  between 
Bokhara  and  Kabul  through  Balkh,  all  being  fairly  pros- 
perous centres  of  population  in  regions  made  productive 
by  irrigation. 

By  far  the  most  important  route  lies  between  Kabul  and 
Peshawur,  at  the  head  of  the  Indus  River.  A  railway,  the 
Sind-Pishin,  extends  along  the  valley  of  this  river  from 
Karachi,  a  port  of  British  India,  to  Peshawur,  also  in  Brit- 
ish India  near  the  Afghan  border,  and  the  route  lies  thence 
through  Khaibar  Pass  to  Jelalabad  and  Kabul.  A  branch 
of  this  road  is  completed  through  Bolan  Pass  nearly  to 
Kandahar. 

Kabul,  the  capital,  is  a  military  stronghold  rather  than 
a  business  centre,  although  it  is  a  collection  depot  for  the 
Khiva-Bokhara  rugs  and  carpets  that  are  marketed  at  Pe- 
shawur. Kandahar  has  a  growing  trade  resulting  from  the 
railway  of  the  Indus  Valley.  Herat  is  the  market  of  the 
famous  Herati  rugs.  There  is  no  organized  commercial 
system;  a  small  amount  of  British  manufactures — mainly 
stuffs  for  domestic  use — are  imported;  rugs  and  dried  fruit 
are  the  only  exports  to  Europe  and  America.  The  imports 
enter  mainly  by  way  of  Karachi,  India;  the  exports  are  car- 
ried to  Europe,  for  the  greater  part,  by  the  Russian  railway. 

The  importance  of  Afghanistan  is  due  to  its  position 
as  a  buffer  state  between  Russia  and  British  India.  The 
various  strategic  points  for  years,  therefore,  have  been 
military  strongholds.  There  is  an  old  saying:  "Whoso 
would  be  master  of  India  must  first  make  himself  lord  of 
Kabul."  The  meaning  of  this  is  seen  in  the  history  of 
Khaibar  Pass,  which  for  many  years  has  been  a  scene  of 
slaughter ;  indeed,  it  has  been  the  chief  gate-way  between 


THE   IRAN   PLATEAU   AND   ARABIA  357 

occidental  and  oriental  civilizations  for  more  than  twenty 
centuries.  Since  the  acquisition  of  India  by  Great  Britain 
Afghanistan  has  been  under  British  protectoracy. 

Baluchistan. — The  general  features  of  Baluchistan  re- 
semble those  of  the  other  parts  of  the  Iran  plateau.  The 
coast  has  no  harbors  in  the  proper  sense,  but  the  anchor- 
age off  Givador  has  fair  protection  from  storms  and  heavy 
winds.  The  few  valleys  produce  enough  food-stuffs  for  the 
half- savage  population.  There  is  but  little  organization  to 
the  government  save  that  which  is  military  in  character. 
The  state  is  a  protectorate  of  Great  Britain. 

Bug-making  is  the  only  industry  that  connects  Baluchis- 
tan with  the  rest  of  the  world.  Quetta,  the  largest  town,  is  a 
military  station  controlling  Bolan  Pass.  Its  outlet  is  the 
Kandahar  branch  of  the  Sind-Pishin  Bailway. 

QUESTIONS    FOR   DISCUSSION 

What  climatic  factors  prevent  these  countries  from  being  re- 
gions of  great  production  ? 

How  do  climate  and  soil  affect  the  character  of  the  wool  clip  ? 

How  do  Arabian  horses  compare  with  American  thorough-bred 
stock  with  respect  to  usefulness  ? — how  do  they  compare  with  the 
mustang  stock  ? 

Why  is  Khaibar  Pass  regarded  as  the  key  to  India? 

FOR  COLLATERAL  READING  AND  REFERENCE 

From  a  cyclopaedia  (or  from  McCarthy's  History  of  Our  Own 
Times)  read  an  account  of  the  British  disaster  at  Kabul. 

Study,  if  possible,  one  or  more  rugs  of  the  following  kinds, 
noting  the  colors,  designs,  and  warp  of  each:  Bokhara  (antique 
and  modern),  Anatolian,  Kermanshah,  and  Baluchistan. 


CHAPTER   XXXI 
BRITISH   INDIA   AND   THE    EAST   INDIES 

These  countries  are  in  tropical  latitudes  and  in  the 
main  are  regions  of  great  productivity.  A  few  native 
states  that  have  resisted  annexation  and  conquest  excepted, 
almost  the  entire  area  is  divided  among  Great  Britain, 
Holland,  and  France. 

British  India.— The  Empire  of  India  comprises  an  area 
half  as  large  as  the  United  States,  situated  on  the  southern 


INDIA 

SCALE    OF  STATUTE   MILES. 


*JT 


~^"^S$tL  PjCEYLON' 

I   A"'N''  ~'o'  C  E  A 

Longitude  East  su "from  Greenwich    H 


,  tt-MM-XY 


SUMAT 


slope  of  Asia.  It  covers  the  same  latitude  as  the  span  be- 
tween the  Venezuelan  coast  and  the  Ohio  River ;  from  the 
Indus  to  the  Siam  frontier  the  distance  is  about  two  thou- 
sand miles.  It  includes  also  settlements  in  the  Malay 
peninsula. 

Excepting  the  plateau  of  the  Dekkan,  and  the  slopes  of 

358 


BRITISH   INDIA  AND  THE   EAST   INDIES  359 

the  Himalayan  ranges,  most  of  the  surface  consists  of  plains 
and  low,  rolling  land  covered  with  a  great  depth  of  soil. 
Through  these  rich  lands  flow  four  large  rivers — the  Indus, 
Ganges,  Brahmaputra,  and  Irawadi,  which  afford  a  great 
deal  of  internal  communication.  The  Himalaya  Moun- 
tains on  the  north  and  the  Hindu  Kush  on  the  northwest 
practically  shut  off  communication  from  the  northward, 
so  that  all  communication  in  this  direction  is  concentrated 
at  Khaibar  and  Bolan  Passes,  the  most  important  gate- 
ways by  land  approach. 

British  India  is  one  of  the  most  populous  regions  of  the 
world;  the  average  population  per  square  mile  is  about 
one  hundred  and  eighty,  a  density  considerably  greater 
than  that  of  New  York  State.  The  entire  population  is 
about  three  times  that  of  the  United  States.  Nearly  all 
the  food-stuffs  grown  are  required  for  home  consumption ; 
indeed,  dry  years  are  apt  to  be  followed  by  a  shortage  of 
food-stuffs.  Years  ago  famines  followed  any  considerable 
deficiency  of  crops,  but  since  the  completion  of  the  ad- 
mirable railway  systems  the  necessary  food-stuffs  are 
quickly  shipped  to  the  district  where  the  shortage  occurs. 

The  Hindus  constitute  about  three-fourths  of  the  popu- 
lation. Along  the  northern  border  there  are  many  peoples 
of  Afghan  and  Turkic  descent ;  in  Burma  there  is  a  con- 
siderable admixture  of  Mongol  blood.  An  elaborate  sys- 
tem of  social  castes  imposed  by  the  teachings  of  Brahma- 
nism  has  made  the  introduction  of  western  methods  of 
education  and  civilization  somewhat  difficult  to  carry  out. 
The  educational  system  of  the  dominating  Brahmanic 
caste,  although  of  a  very  high  order,  does  not  fit  the 
people  to  cope  with  the  commercialism  of  western  civil- 
ization. 

Five-sevenths  of  the  population  are  engaged  in  agricult- 
ural labor.     Rice,  wheat,  millet,  meat,  and  sugar  are  the 


360  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

chief  food-crops.  Of  these,  rice  and  wheat  *  only  are  ex- 
ported ;  the  others  are  required  for  home  consumption. 

The  articles  grown  for  export  are  jute,  cotton,  opium, 
oil-yielding  seeds,  tea,  and  opium.  No  meat  is  exported, 
but  hides  form  a  large  item  of  foreign  trade. 

The  jute  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  rugs  and  grain- 
sacks.  It  is  cultivated  mainly  in  the  delta-lands  of  the 
Ganges-Brahmaputra.  A  considerable  part  of  the  product 
is  now  manufactured  in  India  and  in  China ;  some  is  also 
shipped  to  California,  to  be  made  into  wheat-sacks ;  per- 
haps the  larger  part  is  sent  to  Dundee,  Scotland,  where 
it  is  woven  into  textile  fabrics.  The  choicest  product  is 
used  to  mix  with  silk  fibre,  or  is  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  rugs  and  coverings. 

Cotton  cultivation  is  rapidly  taking  first  rank  among  the 
industries  of  India,  for  which  the  conditions  of  soil,  cli- 
mate, and  market  are  admirably  adapted.  India  stands 
second  in  cotton-growing,  and  the  area  of  production  is 
gradually  increasing.  Most  of  the  crop  is  exported  to 
Europe  for  manufacture,  although  there  is  an  increasing 
amount  sold  to  Japan.  Great  Britain  is  the  largest  pur- 
chaser, and  the  cotton  goods  manufactured  at  Manchester 
are  reshipped  in  large  quantities  to  India. 

Owing  to  the  low  wages  paid  for  labor  both  in  the  fields 
and  the  mills,  cotton  manufacture  is  a  rapidly  growing  in- 
dustry in  India.  In  many  cases  the  yarn  is  manufactured 
in  India  and  then  sent  to  China  to  be  made  into  coarse 
cloth.  Some  of  the  mills  are  equipped  with  machinery 
made  in  the  United  States. 

Tea  has  become  one  of  the  most  important  crops  of 
India.  It  is  grown  mainly  in  Ceylon  and  Assam,  and  is 
said  to  have  grown  wild  in  the  latter  state.     The  quality 

*  In  1900  the  aggregate  value  of  the  wheat  exported  to  Great  Britain  was 
only  £2,200. 


BRITISH   INDIA   AND   THE   EAST   INDIES  361 

of  Indian  tea  is  regarded  as  superior  to  the  Chinese  prod- 
uct, and  Indian  teas  have  therefore  very  largely  supplanted 
those  of  China,  in  British  consumption. 

Silk  cultivation  and  manufacture  have  been  growing 
rapidly  in  the  past  few  years ;  a  considerable  part  of  the 
product  is  "  tussar,"  or  wild  silk.  The  silk  rugs  of  India 
are  not  equalled  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  Wool  is  a 
product  of  the  mountain-regions,  but  is  almost  wholly  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  rugs  and  coverings. 

The  British  occupation  of  India  is  commercial  rather 
than  political.  India  furnishes  a  most  valuable  market  for 
British  manufactures ;  it  supplies  the  British  people  with 
a  large  amount  of  raw  material  for  manufacture.  The 
general  government  is  administrative  only  so  far  as  the 
construction  of  railways,  irrigating  canals,  and  harbors,  and 
the  organization  of  financial  affairs  are  concerned. 

There  are  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  native  states  in- 
cluded within  the  territory  of  British  India.  In  addition 
to  the  native  ruler,  a  British  governor  or  magistrate  car- 
ries out  the  administrative  features  of  the  British  Govern- 
ment. For  administrative  purposes  most  of  the  native 
states  are  grouped  into  eight  provinces,  or  "presidencies." 

Bengal. — The  states  of  Bengal,  mainly  in  the  valley  of 
the  Ganges  River,  produce  most  of  the  rice  and  wheat. 
Calcutta,  the  capital  of  the  empire,  is  a  comparatively 
young  city.  The  Hugli  at  this  point  is  navigable  both 
for  ocean  and  river  craft.  The  situation  of  the  city  is 
much  like  that  of  New  York,  and  it  is  therefore  finely 
adapted  for  commerce.  Kail  ways  extending  from  the 
various  food-producing  districts  and  from  other  centres 
of  commerce  converge  at  Calcutta.  The  city  is  not  only 
the  centre  of  administration,  but  the  chief  focus  of  com- 
merce and  finance  as  well. 

Bombay. — Bombay  includes  a  number  of   states  bor- 


362  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

dering  on  the  Arabian  Sea.  The  city  of  Bombay  is  built 
on  an  island  of  the  same  name.  Its  situation  on  the  west 
coast  makes  it  the  most  convenient  port  for  the  Euro- 
pean trade  that  passes  through  the  Suez  Canal.  The 
opening  of  the  route  gave  Bombay  a  tremendous  growth, 
and  it  is  destined  to  become  a  great  commercial  factor  in 
Indian  Ocean  trade.  It  is  also  a  great  manufacturing  cen- 
tre for  cotton  textiles.  Ahmedabad,  an  important  military 
station,  is  also  an  important  centre  of  cotton  manufacture 
and  wheat-trade. 

Sind. — The  native  state  Sind  includes  the  greater  part 
of  the  basin  of  the  Indus.  Its  importance  is  military  and 
strategic  rather  than  commercial.  The  ability  of  Great 
Britain  to  hold  India  depends  very  largely  on  British  con- 
trol of  the  Indus  Valley  and  the  passes  leading  from  it.  The 
Sind-Pishin  Railway  traverses  the  Indus  Valley  from  Kara- 
chi to  Peshawur.  Haidarabad,  one  of  the  largest  cities  of 
India,  is  the  centre  of  an  agricultural  district.  Karachi, 
the  port  near  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  next  to  Khaibar 
Pass,  is  the  most  important  strategic  point  of  India,  and 
one  that  the  Russians  for  more  than  a  century  have  been 
trying  to  possess. 

Punjab. — The  states  of  the  Punjab  are  mainly  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  Indus.  Amritsar  is  an  important  centre 
for  the  manufacture  of  silk  rugs  and  carpets.  A  large 
number  of  these  are  sold  in  the  United  States  at  prices 
varying  from  two  hundred  to  six  thousand  dollars.  The 
designs  for  these  textiles  are  often  made  in  New  York. 
Peshawar,  important  chiefly  as  a  military  station. 

Burma. — British  Burma  includes  the  basin  of  the  Ira- 
wadi  River.  The  uplands  are  wheat-fields;  the  low- 
lands produce  rice.  Mandalay  is  a  river-port  and  commer- 
cial centre.  Rangoon  is  the  seaport,  with  a  considerable 
ship  building  industry  that  results  from  the  teak  forests. 


BRITISH   INDIA   AND   THE   EAST  INDIES  363 

Although  the  Irawadi  is  navigable  for  light  craft,  rail- 
ways along  the  valley  have  become  a  necessity ;  these  cen- 
tre at  Rangoon. 

The  province  of  Madras  is  one  of  the  most  densely 
peopled  parts  of  India.  The  chief  commercial  products 
are  cotton  and  teak-wood.  Madras,  its  commercial  centre, 
has  a  very  heavy  foreign  trade  in  hides,  spices,  and  cotton. 
The  cotton  manufactures  are  extensive.  A  yarn-dyed 
cotton  cloth,  now  imitated  both  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  has  made  the  name  famous. 

Kashmir. — The  native  state  Kashmir,  situated  high  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Karakorum  Mountains,  is  known  chiefly 
for  the  "  Cashmere  "  shawls  made  there.  The  shawls  are 
hand- woven  and  represent  the  highest  style  of  the  weaver's 
art.  The  best  require  many  years  each  in  the  making ; 
they  command  prices  varying  from  five  hundred  to  five 
thousand  dollars.     This  industry  centres  at  Srinagar. 

Other  British  States. — The  Straits  Settlements  are 
so  called  because  they  face  the  Straits  of  Malacca.  They 
include  several  colonies,  chief  of  which  are  Singapore, 
Penang,  and  Malacca.  The  Straits  ports  are  free  from 
export  and  import  duties,  a  regulation  designed  to  encour- 
age the  concentration  of  Malaysian  products  there — in 
other  words,  to  encourage  a  transit  trade. 

The  policy  has  proved  a  wise  one,  and  the  trade  at  the 
three  ports — Singapore,  Penang,  and  Malacca — aggregates 
about  six  hundred  million  dollars  yearly.  About  two- 
thirds  of  this  sum  represents  the  business  of  Singapore. 
Tin  constitutes  about  half  the  exports,  a  large  share  going 
to  the  United  States.  Spices,  rubber,  gutta-percha,  tapi- 
oca, and  rattan  constitute  the  remaining  trade.  Bice, 
cotton  cloth,  and  opium  are  the  imports. 

The  Federated  Malay  States,  situated  in  the  Malay 
peninsula,  and  the  northern  part  of  Borneo  are  also  British 


364  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

possessions.  Their  trade  and  products  are  similar  to  the 
rest  of  the  Malaysian  possessions. 

Dutch  East  India. — The  Dutch  possessions  include 
nearly  all  the  islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  the 
western  part  of  New  Guinea.  Of  these,  Java  and  Suma- 
tra are  the  most  important.  They  are  divided  into  "resi- 
dencies," and  the  administering  officers  exercise  control 
over  the  various  plantations.  In  addition,  there  are 
numerous  private  plantations.  The  colonial  administra- 
tion is  admirable. 

Cane-sugar,  coffee,  rice,  indigo,  pepper,  tobacco,  and 
tea  are  the  chief  products.  The  sugar  industry  has  been 
somewhat  crippled  by  the  beet-sugar  product  of  Europe. 
Java  and  Sumatra  coffees  are  in  demand  all  over  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  Sumatra  wrappers  for  cigars  find 
also  a  ready  market  wherever  cigars  are  manufactured. 
The  cultivation  of  cinchona,  or  Peruvian  bark,  has  proved 
successful,  and  this  substance  is  becoming  an  important 
export.  The  islands  of  Banka  and  Billiton  (with  Riouw) 
yield  a  very  large  part  of  the  world's  supply  of  tin,  much 
of  which  goes  finally  to  the  United  States.  The  mother- 
country  profits  by  the  trade  of  these  islands  in  two  ways  : 
the  Dutch  merchants  are  practically  middlemen  who  create 
and  manage  the  commerce ;  the  Dutch  Government  receives 
an  import  tax  of  six  per  cent.,  and  a  small  export  tax  on 
nearly  all  articles  except  sugar.  Batavia  is  the  focal  point 
of  the  commerce. 

Siam. — This  kingdom  is  chiefly  important  as  a  buffer 
state  between  French  and  British  India,  and  little  by  little 
has  been  pared  by  these  nations  until  practically  nothing 
but  the  basin  of  the  Menam  River  remains.  The  adminis- 
tration of  the  state  is  progressive,  and  much  of  the  re- 
sources have  been  developed  in  the  last  few  years. 

Rice  and   teak  are  the  leading  products.     The  rice  is 


BRITISH   INDIA  AND   THE  EAST  INDIES  365 

cultivated  by  native  laborers — much  of  it  by  enforced 
labor — and  is  sold  to  Hongkong,  British  India,  and  the 
more  northerly  states.  It  is  collected  by  Chinese  middle- 
men, and  by  them  sold  to  British  and  German  exporters. 
The  teak  wood  business  is  managed  by  British  firms.  The 
logs  are  cut  by  natives,  hauled  to  the  Menam  Biver,  and 
floated  to  Bangkok ;  there  they  are  squared  and  sent  to 
European  markets.  Pepper  and  preserved  fish  are  also 
exported.  The  Menam  Biver  is  the  chief  trade-route,  and 
Bangkok,  at  its  mouth,  is  the  focal  point  of  trade. 

French  India. — The  French  control  the  region  south  of 
China,  called  French  Indo-China,  together  with  various 
areas  in  the  peninsula  of  Hindustan ;  of  these  Pondicheri 
and  Karical  are  the  most  important.  Indo-China  includes 
the  basin  of  Mekong  Biver,  and  rice  is  the  staple  product. 
The  most  productive  rice-fields  are  the  delta-lands  of  the 
Mekong,  formerly  known  as  Cochin-China. 

From  these  lands  more  than  half  a  million  tons  of  rice 
are  exported,  the  product  being  sold  mainly  at  Hongkong 
and  Singapore.  Pepper  is  also  an  export  of  considerable 
value.  France,  China,  and  the  Philippine  Islands  are  the 
final  destination  of  the  rice  export.  The  imports  are 
mainly  textiles,  machinery,  and  coal-oil  from  the  United 
States.  The  machinery  pertains  chiefly  to  the  manufact- 
ures of  cotton  and  silk  textiles.  On  account  of  cheaply 
mined  coal,  there  is  a  considerable  growth  of  this  industry. 
Saigon  is  the  business  centre  and  port  at  which  the  Chinese 
middlemen  meet  the  European  merchants  and  forwarders. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  DISCUSSION 

What  have  been  the  chief  effects  of  the  British  occupation  of 
these  countries,  so  far  as  the  natives  are  concerned  ? 

What  is  the  position  of  Khaibar  Pass  with  respect  to  the  com- 
merce of  India  ? 


366  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

How  has  the  building  of  the  Sind-Pishin  Railway  strengthened 
British  occupation  of  India  ? 

Singapore  and  Batavia  are  the  two  great  focal  points  of  trade 
in  the  East  India  Islands.  At  the  former  all  trade  is  absolutely 
free ;  at  the  latter  there  is  both  an  import  and  an  export  tax. 
What  are  the  advantages  of  each  policy  ? 

From  the  Abstract  of  Statistics  find  the  trade  of  the  United 
States  with  these  countries. 

FOR  COLLATERAL  READING  AND  REFERENCE 

From  a  cyclopedia,  preferably  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica, 
read  the  following  topics: 

Caste  Rattan 

Lord  Clive  Pepper 


CHAPTEK  XXXII 
CHINA    AND    JAPAN 

The  relative  position  of  China,  Russia,  and  Japan  is  not 
unlike  that  of  continental  Europe  and  Great  Britain,  and 
the  struggle  for  supremacy  in  the  Japan  and  Yellow  Seas 
is  about  the  same  as  that  which  in  times  past  took  place 
in  the  North  Sea.  In  the  latter  case  France  and  Holland 
were  the  disturbing  powers  ;  in  the  former,  it  is  Russia. 

The  Chinese  Empire.— A  comparison  of  the  Chinese 
Empire  with  the  United  States  shows  that  the  two  coun- 
tries have  about  the  same  position  and  extent  of  latitude. 
There  is  also  about  the  same  proportion  of  highlands,  arid 
lands,  and  fertile  lowlands.  The  similarity  of  the  two 
countries  in  geographic  conditions  is  very  marked. 

The  fertile  lowland  in  the  east  and  southeast  is  one  of 
the  most  productive  regions  in  the  world,  and  forms  the 
chief  resource  of  the  country ;  on  account  of  its  produc- 
tivity it  is  densely  peopled.  The  arid  and  mountain  lands 
are  peopled  mainly  by  cattle-herders  and  nomadic  tribes. 

China  is  essentially  an  agricultural  country,  and  the  farms 
are  held  in  much  the  same  way  as  in  the  United  States,  but 
the  holdings  are  so  small  that  agricultural  machinery  is  not 
required  for  their  cultivation. 

Wheat,  millet,  and  pease  are  grown  throughout  the  low- 
lands wherever  they  can  be  cultivated.  The  cultivation  of 
rice  is  confined  mainly  to  the  coast  lowlands.  The  amount 
of  food-stuffs  produced,  however,  is  scarcely  sufficient  for 
home  consumption;  indeed,  a  considerable  amount  is  im- 

367 


368  COMMEECIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

ported,  and  the  imports  year  by  year  are  increasing.  This 
is  due  not  so  much  to  the  density  of  population  as  to  want 
of  means  of  transportation  of  the  soil  products  from  inland 
regions.  It  is  often  much  cheaper  to  import  food-stuffs 
from  abroad  than  to  transport  them,  even  from  an  adjoin- 
ing province. 

Tea  is  extensively  cultivated,  and  China  exports  nearly 
one-half  of  the  world's  product;  the  total  amount  pro- 
duced is  considerably  more  than  half.  Most  of  this  goes 
to  Great  Britain  and  Canada.  Raw  silk  is  an  important 
product,  and  the  mulberry-tree  is  extensively  grown.  Cot- 
ton is  one  of  the  most  general  crops  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  empire,  especially  along  the  lower  Yangtze.  It  is 
a  garden-crop,  however,  and  nearly  all  of  it  is  consumed. 

The  mineral  wealth  is  very  great,  and  with  proper  man- 
agement will  make  China  one  of  the  most  productive  and 
powerful  countries  in  the  world.  Coal  is  found  in  every 
one  of  the  provinces,  and  the  city  of  Peking  is  supplied 
with  an  excellent  quality  of  anthracite  from  the  Fang-shan 
mines,  only  a  few  miles  distant.  It  is  thought  that  the 
coal-fields  are  the  most  extensive  in  the  world.  Iron  ore 
of  excellent  quality  is  abundant,  and  in  several  localities, 
notably  in  the  province  of  Shansi,  the  two  are  near  each 
other. 

Foreign  capitalists  are  seeking  to  develop  these  resources 
in  several  localities.  The  Germans  have  obtained  mining 
concessions  in  Shantung  peninsula,  and  these  involve  the 
iron  ore  and  coal,  occurring  there.  The  Peking  syndicate,  a 
London  company,  has  also  obtained  a  coal-mining  conces- 
sion in  Shansi. 

For  the  greater  part  the  manufactures  are  home  indus- 
tries.*    Until  recently  most  of  the  cotton  cloth  was  made 

*  Since  the  treaty  of  1901,  which  forbids  the  importation  of  fire-arms, 
a  number  of  large  plants  for  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms,  smokeless  pow- 
der, and  fixed  ammunition  have  been  established  on  the  lower  Yangtze. 


thun  «^°/MuV|fleil 

fiii/chwiins 

'Hai-cheng 

n-«ang;tay~Jj; 

't/Ai?*"       ~-J         vPln-l  Arthur        ?   K°£ 

B  "Pe-chUi  .f  vN  /       'S  w>^-^r 

Teng-c^u-O^^^^i.L^.Vei  thgmul per, 
€lii-tnMr'/Ul  ■■> 


j^.      Tsing-chau 

(      "Ctyng-te/  T  "J"iSfl    Tai-ngan  .       ' 

If  18e  chaVU  <-'  ■    .d.^VTr-^    VfYen-cha 

,/  _-_   Huai-kir§^i-1,ul Vf/Tsao-chaurl.   Yi-chau 

'  K  li-fcmr  .  x-:*iC 


SHE\\-f 


'^~Ho-nan 


Kiii-fensr 
"Slnipail-fti^"  ~^T>Va.    \|\    .S"-^"^    , 

I       "  -CIiau-kia-ka\    »J    >/   \-vi     V  Wv^? 

K    S        H  O/-  N^t^JCh^n-ohfN  ^-V- 

SfeEi^A      *   /  Vju-nlngy^jn^K&u' 
'-         >chj.ng>  S-JC^Tu-chai,;;       g^Chl^hauH^u  7»/T3^TsChusan 


Jhang-te 
Chen-chau 

i    Sikne-ta.,  i'  °W* 


!&»/  V>~-0'"'V ---Hui-chau  / 

„&         nff!SirgrH6-kmu'.V    ^n-wVE",' 

n-o-chau'  Nafi-kangf^Vj /»  P^"-^!"-,,.!),*! 

Shui-ch^u      ^^  '^Kuang-sin    / 

'  lChu-chau 
^'Tsung-ngan^  |    *JWen-ohaii,' 


,\aii-cliaii 
Lin-kiangJI  ,Fu-chavi- 

K  I  A/N  G  -  S.I 
Ki-an  •  /    Kien-chang 


-Eastern 


//Sea 


370  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

by  means  of  cottage  looms,  and  the  beautiful  silk  brocades 
which  are  not  surpassed  anywhere  else  in  the  world  are  still 
made  in  this  manner.  Porcelain-making  is  one  of  the  oldest 
industries,  and  to  this  day  the  wares  sold  in  Europe  and 
America  are  known  as  "  china."  Straw  carpet,  or  matting, 
and  fans  for  export  are  also  important  exports. 

The  mill  system  of  manufacture  is  rapidly  gaining 
ground,  however,  and  foreign  companies  find  it  economical 
to  carry  the  yarn  made  in  India  from  American  cotton  into 
China  to  be  made  into  cloth.  In  the  vicinity  of  Shanghai 
alone  there  are  nearly  three  hundred  thousand  spindles. 
This  phase  of  the  industry  is  due  largely  to  the  factor  of 
cheap  labor  ;  the  Chinese  skilled  laborer  is  intelligent ;  he 
does  not  object  to  a  sixteen-hour  working-day  at  wages 
varying  from  five  to  twenty  cents. 

There  is  no  great  localization  of  industrial  centres,  as  in 
the  United  States  and  Europe.  Each  centre  of  population 
is  practically  self-supporting  and  independent  from  an 
economic  stand-point.  The  introduction  of  western  meth- 
ods, however,  is  gradually  changing  this  feature. 

All  industries  of  a  general  character  are  hampered  for 
want  of  good  means  of  transportation.  The  empire  is 
traversed  by  a  network  of  unpaved  roads ;  but  although 
these  are  always  in  a  wretched  condition,  an  enormous 
traffic  is  carried  over  them  by  means  of  wheel-barrows, 
pack-animals,  and  by  equally  primitive  methods. 

The  numerous  rivers  form  an  important  means  of  com- 
munication. The  Yangtze  is  now  available  to  commerce 
a  distance  of  2,000  miles,  and  the  opening  of  the 
Si  Kiang  (West  Eiver)  adds  a  large  area  that  is  commer- 
cially tributary  to  Canton  and  Hongkong.  The  most  im- 
portant water-way  is  the  Grand  Canal,  extending  from 
Hang  Chow  to  Tientsin.  This  canal  is  by  no  means  a 
good    one    as    compared   with   American    and    European 


*&*..!&■ 


*  i  -  * 


w&mm 


A   TEA-PLANTATION-PICKING   THE   LEAVES 


PREPARING  THE   LEAVES   FOR 
ROASTING 


TEA-BALES   FOR   EXPORT  THROUGH 
RUSSIA 


372  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

standards.  It  was  built  not  so  much  for  the  necessities 
of  traffic,  as  to  avoid  the  numerous  pirate  vessels  that  in- 
fest the  coasts.  Junks,  row-boats,  house-boats,  and  for- 
eign steam  craft  are  all  employed  for  traffic.  The  inter- 
nal water-ways  aggregate  about  fifteen  thousand  miles  in 
length. 

Of  railways  there  were  less  than  three  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  at  the  close  of  the  century,  the  most  important  being 
the  line  from  Tientsin  to  Peking.  About  five  thousand 
miles  are  projected  and  under  construction  by  American 
and  European  companies.  A  branch  of  the  Transsiberian 
railway  is  under  construction  to  Port  Arthur.  Telegraph 
and  telephone  lines  have  become  popular  and  have  been 
extended  to  the  interior  a  considerable  distance.  There 
are  upward  of  twenty  thousand  miles  of  wire  communica- 
tion, the  most  important,  in  many  respects,  being  a  direct 
overland  line  between  Peking  and  European  cities.  Inas- 
much as  there  are  no  letters  in  the  Chinese  language,  the 
difficulties  in  using  the  Morse  code  of  telegraphy  are  very 
great.  In  some  cases  the  messages  are  translated  into  a 
foreign  language  before  they  are  transmitted  ;  in  others,  a 
thousand  or  more  words  in  colloquial  and  commercial  use 
are  numbered,  and  the  number  is  telegraphed  instead  of 
the  word. 

Most  of  the  business  between  the  natives  and  foreigners 
is  carried  on  by  means  of  middlemen,  or  "  compradors," 
and  these  include  both  the  commission  merchants  and  the 
native  bankers.  They  are  intelligent,  thrifty,  and  trust- 
worthy. They  are  the  most  capable  merchants  in  Asia, 
and  have  few  if  any  superiors  among  the  merchants  of 
western  nations.  A  very  large  part  of  the  retail  trade  of 
the  Philippine  Islands  is  carried  on  by  Chinese  merchants. 

The  Chinese  Empire  consists  of  China  and  the  five 
dependencies,  as  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


CHINA   AND   JAPAN 


373 


China  proper  .... 

Manchuria 

Tibet  

Mongolia 

Jungaria 

Eastern  Turkestan 


Population 

Capital  ob  Chief 
Town 

380,000,000 

Peking 

7,500,000 

Kirin 

6,000,000 

Lassa 

2,000,000 

Urga 

600,000 

Kur-kara-usu 

600,000 

Yarkand 

The  five  dependencies  are  mainly  arid,  unproductive,  and 
sparsely  peopled.  Their  chief  importance  consists  in  the 
fact  that  they  are  "  buffer  states  "  between  China  proper 
and  European  states.  They  produce  little  except  meat, 
wool,  and  live-stock. 

China  proper  is  divided  into  provinces,  each  governed 
by  a  viceroy  appointed  by  the  throne.  All  business  with 
foreign  powers  is  transacted  through  a  Foreign  Office,  the 
Wai-wu-pu  (formerly  the  Tsung-li-Yamen).  The  govern- 
ment business  is  managed  by 
a  Grand  Council  whose  mem- 
bers are  advisers  to  the  throne. 
The  government  is  controlled 
mainly  by  Manchu  officials. 

Until  within  a  few  years 
China  nominally  allowed  no 
foreign  traders  within  her  bor- 
ders ;  recently,  however,  about 
forty  cities,  commonly  known  as  "treaty  ports,"  have  been 
opened  to  the  trade  of  foreign  countries.     Goods  going 


SCALE  OF   STATUTE   MILES. 


3$\ctotU 

\J&  BOUNDARY   OF    BRITISH      <?J_ERRIT0RY_ 

"         "         "  M_.-"n..  ENG, 


liken 


or  in- 


inland  any  distance  are  required  to  pay  a 
ternal  tariff  at  the  border  of  each  province. 

Several  concessions  of  territory  within  recent  years  have 
been  forced  from  China  by  foreign  powers :  thus,  Great 
Britain  has  Hongkong  Island  (with  the  peninsula  of  Kau- 


374  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

lung)  and  Weihaiwei;  Russia  has  Port  Arthur  and  the 
surrounding  waters  of  Talienwan  Bay;  Germany  has 
Kiaochou  on  the  bay  of  the  same  name  ;  France  has 
Kwangchauwan  harbor.  These  concessions  carry  with 
them  the  control  of  the  port  and  surrounding  territory, 
The  German  concession  includes  the  right  to  mine  coal 
and  iron,  and  to  build  railways  within  a  territory  of  much 
larger  extent. 

Whatever  may  be  the  political  significance  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  treaty  ports  and  the  granting  of  the  various  con- 
cessions, the  effect  has  been  to  increase  the  trade  of  the 
United  States  with  China  about  twenty-fold.  The  imports 
from  the  United  States  consist  mainly  of  cotton  and  cotton 
cloth,  coal-oil,  and  flour.  The  chief  exports  to  all  countries 
are  tea,  silk  goods,  and  porcelain  ware.  Most  of  those  sent 
to  the  United  States  are  landed  at  Seattle  or  San  Francisco. 
Great  Britain,  through  the  port  of  Hongkong,  has  a  larger 
trade  than  any  other  nation.  Japan  and  the  United  States 
have  most  of  the  remaining  trade. 

Peking,  the  capital,  is  politically,  but  not  commercially, 
important.  The  part  occupied  by  the  foreign  legations  is 
modern  and  well  kept.  Tientsin,  the  port  of  Peking,  is  a 
larger  city,  with  much  more  business.  Canton,  the  largest 
city  of  the  empire,  and  Hongkong,  are  the  commercial  cen- 
tres of  nearly  all  the  British  trade.  Most  of  the  American 
and  Japanese  trade  centres  at  Shanghai.  Niuchivang,  on 
the  Manchurian  frontier,  is  important  mainly  as  a  strategic 
point.  Macao,  a  Portuguese  possession,  is  the  open  door 
of  Portugal  into  China. 

The  inland  divisions  of  the  Chinese  Empire  have  but 
little  commercial  importance.  Musk,  wool,  and  skins  are 
obtained  from  Tibet,  into  whose  capital,  Lassa,  scarcely 
half  -  a  -  dozen  Europeans  have  penetrated.  The  closed 
condition  is  due  to  the  opposition  of  the  Lamas,  an  order 


CHINA    AND   JAPAN 


375 


of  Buddhist  priests.  Mongolia  is  a  grazing  region  that 
supplies  the  Chinese  border  country  with  goats,  sheep,  and 
horses.  It  also  supplies  the  camels  required  for  the  cara- 
van tea-trade  to  the  Russian  frontiers.  Eastern  Turkes- 
tan is  mainly  a  desert.  Kashgar,  the  metropolis  of  the 
fertile  portion,  is  the  exchange  market  for  Chinese  and 
Russian  products.     Most  of  the  mineral  known  as  jade 


is  obtained  there.  Manchuria  is  the  most  important  di- 
vision of  the  empire,  next  to  China.  It  is  a  grazing  coun- 
try, exporting  animal  products,  millet,  and  ginseng  into 
China. 

Korea,  formerly  a  vassal  of  China,  became  an  inde- 
pendent state  after  the  war  between  China  and  Japan,  this 
step  being  forced  by  Russia.  The  country  is  a  natural 
market  for  Japanese  manufactures,  and  in  turn  supplies 


376  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Japan  with  a  considerable  amount  of  food-stuffs.  Che- 
niulpo  is  the  chief  centre  of  its  commerce. 

Japan Japan  is  an  insular  empire,  the  commercial  part 

of  which  has  about  the  same  latitude  as  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  the  United  States ;  the  empire  extends  from  Formosa 
to  Kamchatka.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Great  Brit- 
ain of  the  East,"  and  the  people  are  also  called  the  "  Yan- 
kees of  the  East."  Structurally,  the  chain  of  islands  con- 
sists of  ranges  of  volcanic  mountains.  The  abundant  rains, 
however,  have  made  many  fertile  river- valleys,  and  have 
fringed  most  of  the  islands  with  coast-plains. 

Since  the  opening  of  Japan  to  foreigners  the  Japanese 
have  so  thoroughly  adapted  themselves  to  western  com- 
mercial methods  that  they  have  become  the  dominating 
power  in  eastern  Asia.  Their  influence  has  been  greatly 
strengthened  by  a  treaty  for  defensive  purposes  with  Great 
Britain.  A  most  excellent  army  and  a  modern  navy  make 
the  alliance  a  strong  one.  The  Japanese  are  better  adapted 
to  mould  the  commercial  policy  of  China  than  any  other 
people. 

With  a  population  of  more  than  half  that  of  the  United 
States,  occupying  an  area  not  larger  than  the  State  of  Cali- 
fornia, every  square  foot  of  available  land  must  be  culti- 
vated. Yet  the  Japanese  not  only  grow  most  of  the  food- 
stuffs they  consume,  but  are  able  to  export  rice.  There  is 
scant  facility  for  growing  beef  cattle,  but  fish  very  largely 
takes  the  place  of  beef.  The  cattle  grown  are  used  as 
draught-animals  in  farm  labor.  Ordinary  dairy  products 
are  but  little  used. 

Kice,  tea,  and  silk  are  the  staple  crops.  Bice  is  grown 
on  the  coast  lowlands,  the  west  or  rainy  side  *  producing 
the  larger  crop.   The  Japanese  crop  is  so  superior  that  the 

*  The  islands  are  mainly  in  the  helt  of  prevailing  westerly  winds.  More 
rain,  therefore,  falls  on  the  west  than  on  the  east  coasts. 


NATIVE   PLOUGHING   RICE-FIELDS 


IRRIGATING  A   RICE-FIELD 


RICE-FIELDS 


378  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

larger  part  is  exported,  while  an  inferior  Chinese  grain  is 
imported  for  home  consumption.  The  quality  of  the  Jap- 
anese rice  is  due  to  skilful  cultivation. 

Tea  has  become  the  staple  crop,  and  is  cultivated  from 
Formosa  to  the  forty-fifth  parallel.  Tea-farms  occupy 
nearly  every  acre  of  the  cultivable  hill-side  areas  in  some 
of  the  islands,  and  the  soil  is  enriched  with  a  fertilizer 
made  from  fish  and  fish  refuse,  dried  and  broken.  Most 
of  the  tea  product  is  made  into  green  tea,  and  on  account 
of  its  quality  it  commands  a  high  price.  Formosa  tea  is 
considered  the  best  in  the  market. 

Silk  culture  is  confined  almost  wholly  to  the  island  of 
Hondo.  The  raw  silk  is  of  superior  quality,  and  the  ex- 
ported material  is  used  mainly  in  the  manufacture  of  rib- 
bons and  brocades.  A  limited  amount  of  cotton  is  grown, 
but  the  staple  is  short,  and  its  cultivation  is  not  profitable 
except  in  a  few  localities. 

Among  the  forestry  there  is  comparatively  little  timber 
suitable  for  building  purposes,  and  a  considerable  amount 
of  timber  is  purchased  from  the  mills  of  Puget  Sound. 
Bamboo  is  largely  employed  for  buildings.  Camphor  is 
the  product  of  a  tree  (Camphora  officinarum)  allied  to  the 
cinnamon  and  the  sassafras.  It  is  cultivated  in  the  island 
of  Kiushiu.  The  best  gum,  however,  is  now  obtained  from 
Formosa,  and  this  island  now  controls  the  world's  supply. 
The  camphor  product  is  a  government  monopoly  leased  to 
a  British  company. 

The  lacquer-tree  (Rhus  vernicifera)  grows  mainly  in  the 
island  of  Hondo.  The  sap,  after  preparation,  forms  the 
most  durable  varnish  known.  Black  lacquer  is  obtained 
by  treating  the  sap  with  nutgalls.  Lacquered  wooden- 
ware  is  sold  all  over  Europe  and  the  United  States.  The 
lacquered  surface  is  exceedingly  hard  and  waterproof ;  it 
is  not  affected  by  climate. 


CHINA   AND   JAPAN  379 

Gold,  porcelain  clay,  silver,  copper,  and  petroleum  are 
mined.  The  gold  and  silver  are  used  both  for  coinage  and 
in  the  arts ;  the  clay  has  made  Japanese  porcelains  famous. 
The  copper  comes  from  the  most  productive  mines  of  Asia ; 
a  considerable  amount  is  exported,  but  much  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  Japanese  bronze  goods.  Coal  is  mined, 
and  this  has  given  a  great  impetus  to  manufacture ;  iron 
ore  is  deficient,  and  steel  must  be  imported.  The  quantity 
of  petroleum  is  increasing  yearly,  and  is  becoming  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  world's  product. 

Manufacturing  industries  are  giving  shape  to  the  indus- 
trial future  of  the  country.  The  cotton-mills  alone  employ 
seventy  thousand  people  and  keep  more  than  one  million 
spindles  busy.  More  than  one  million  operatives  are  en- 
gaged in  textile  manufactures.  Much  of  the  cloth,  both 
cotton  and  silk,  is  still  woven  on  cottage  looms.  The  cot- 
ton cloth  is  sold  mainly  in  China  and  Korea ;  the  surplus 
silk  textiles  find  a  ready  market  in  the  United  States* 
The  best  straw  matting  used  as  a  floor-covering  is  now 
made  in  Japan  and  constitutes  a  very  important  ex- 
port. 

Three  thousand  miles  of  railway  aid  the  internal  indus- 
tries of  the  country ;  several  steamship  lines  to  Hongkong 
and  Shanghai,  and  one  or  more  each  to  Vladivostok,  Bom- 
bay, San  Francisco,  Seattle,  Honolulu,  Australia,  and  Van- 
couver (B.  C.)  carry  the  tea,  raw  silk,  and  manufactured 
products  to  Europe  and  America.  Much,  if  not  most,  of 
the  steamship  interests  are  owned  by  the  Japanese,  and 
the  lines  are  encouraged  by  government  subsidies.  France 
and  the  United  States  buy  most  of  the  raw  silk.  The  lat- 
ter country  purchases  most  of  the  tea,  sending  coal-oil, 
cotton,  leather,  and  lumber  in  return.  Great  Britain  and 
Germany  sell  to  the  Japanese  a  large  part  of  the  textiles 
and  the  machinery  they  use.     The  exports  to  the  United 


380  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

States  are  consigned  mainly  to  San  Francisco,  New  York 
and  Seattle. 

Tokio  is  the  capital;  Yokohama  is  the  chief  port  for 
American  traffic,  and  the  market  for  most  of  the  foreign 
trade.  Most  of  the  trade  between  China  and  Japan  cen- 
tres at  Nagasaki,  which  is  the  Japanese  naval  station. 
Osaka  and  Kioto  are  the  chief  centres  of  cotton  and  textile 
manufactures. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   DISCUSSION 

How  has  the  policy  of  seclusion  affected  the  commercial  de- 
velopment of  China  ? 

What  has  been  its  effect  on  the  social  life  of  the  people  ? 

How  did  the  cultivation  of  opium  in  India  become  a  factor  in 
the  opening  of  China  to  foreign  trade  ? 

What  is  meant  by  ' '  treaty  ports  "  ?  Make  a  list  of  those  shown 
on  the  map  of  eastern  China. 

Name  two  Chinese  statesmen  who  have  been  factors  in  the 
relations  between  China  and  the  United  States. 

Compare  the  position  of  Japan  with  that  of  the  British  Isles 
with  reference  to  commerce. 

What  advantages  has  Japan  with  reference  to  latitude  ? — what 
disadvantages  with  reference  to  cultivable  lands  ? 

From  the  Statesman's  Year-Book  find  the  leading  exports  and 
imports  and  the  volume  of  trade  of  these  states. 

From  the  Abstract  of  Statistics  find  the  leading  articles  of  trade 
between  these  states  and  the  United  States. 

FOR  COLLATERAL  READING  AND  REFERENCE 

From  a  cyclopaedia  read  the  following  topics  :  The  opium  war, 
Commodore  Perry's  expedition. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
AFRICA 

Africa  is  in  a  state  of  commercial  transition.  During 
the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  partition  of 
its  area  among  European  nations  left  but  few  of  the  names 
that  formerly  were  familiar.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century  the  British,  French,  and  Germans  con- 
trolled the  greater  part  of  the  continent,  although  the 
Portuguese,  Belgians,  Italians,  and  Spanish  have  various 
possessions. 

The  partition  of  Africa  was  designed  for  the  expansion 
of  European  markets.  The  population  of  Africa  is  about 
one  hundred  and  seventy  million,  and  the  continent  is  prac- 
tically without  manufacturing  enterprises.  The  people, 
therefore,  must  be  supplied  with  clothing  and  other  com- 
modities. In  1900  the  total  trade  of  Africa  with  the  rest 
of  the  world  was  about  one  and  one-third  billion  dollars, 
of  which  the  United  States  had  a  little  more  than  two  per 
cent.,  mainly  cotton  cloth  and  coal-oil. 

Egypt-— The  Egypt  of  the  maps  is  a  region  of  indefinite 
extent  so  far  as  its  western  and  southern  boundaries  are 
concerned  ;  the  Egypt  of  history  is  the  flood  plain  of  the 
Nile.  From  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  Cairo  the  cultivable 
area  is  not  far  from  one  hundred  miles  in  width ;  from 
Cairo  to  Khartum  it  varies  from  three  to  seven  or  eight 
miles  wide. 

The  food-producing  power  of  Egypt  depends  on  the 
Nile.     In  lower  Egypt  a  considerable  area  is  made  pro- 

381 


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AFRICA  383 

ductive  at  the  ordinary  stage  of  water  by  means  of  irri- 
gating canals,  but  in  upper  Egypt  the  crops  must  depend 
upon  the  annual  flood  of  the  river,  which  occurs  from  June 
until  September.  During  this  period  the  river  varies  from 
twenty-five  to  forty  feet  above  the  low-water  mark.  In  the 
irrigated  regions  three  crops  a  year  may  be  produced ;  in 
the  flooded  lands  only  one  is  grown. 

In  order  to  add  to  the  cultivable  area  two  great  engineer- 
ing works  have  been  constructed.  A  barrage  and  lock 
control  the  flow  of  water  at  Assiut ;  a  huge  dam  at  Assuan 
impounds  the  surplus  of  the  flood  season.  These  struct- 
ures, it  is  thought,  will  increase  the  productive  power  of 
the  country  about  one-fourth.  Kice,  maize  (an  Egyptian 
variety),  sugar,  wheat,  and  beans  are  the  staple  crops. 

Rice  is  the  food  of  the  native  people,  but  the  crop  is 
insufficient,  and  the  deficit  must  be  imported.  The  wheat, 
maize,  and  beans  are  grown  for  export  to  Europe,  the  last 
named  being  extensively  used  for  horse-fodder.  The  sugar- 
growing  industry  is  protected  by  the  heavy  yield  and  the 
cheap  fellahin  labor.  The  raw  sugar  is  sent  to  the  re- 
fineries along  the  Mediterranean.  Onions  are  exported  to 
the  United  States. 

The  cotton-crop  is  an  important  factor,  and  in  spite  of 
its  own  crop  the  United  States  is  a  heavy  purchaser  of  the 
long-staple  Egyptian  cotton,  which  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  thread  and  hosiery.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco 
is  forbidden  by  law,  but  Egyptian  cigarettes  are  an  item 
of  considerable  importance.  They  are  made  of  imported 
Turkish  tobacco  by  foreign  workmen.  There  is  a  heavy 
export  duty  on  native  tobacco  exported,  and  the  ban  on 
the  inferior  native-grown  article  is  intended  to  prevent  its 
admixture  with  the  high-grade  product  from  Turkey,  and 
thereby  to  keep  up  the  standard  of  the  cigarettes. 

Egypt  is  nominally  a  vassal  of  Turkey,  paying  to  the 


384  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Sultan  a  yearly  tribute  of  $3,600,000.  Great  Britain's  is 
the  real  controlling  hand,  because  the  Suez  Canal  is  Great 
Britain's  gate-way  to  India.  By  a  purchase  of  the  stock 
held  by  a  former  Khedive,  Great  Britain  secured  financial 
control  of  the  canal,  a  necessary  step  from  the  fact  that 
more  than  half  the  trade  carried  through  the  canal  is  Brit- 
ish commerce. 

The  country  is  deficient  in  the  resources  that  make  most 
nations  powerful.  There  is  neither  coal,  iron,  nor  timber 
available,  and  these  must  be  imported.  Great  Britain 
supplies  the  first,  and  Norway  the  last.  Some  traffic  is 
carried  on  the  Nile,  but  railways  have  been  built  through 
the  crop-lands.  One  of  these  threads  the  Nile  Valley  and 
will  become  a  part  of  the  "  Cape  to  Cairo  "  route. 

Alexandria  is  the  port  at  which  most  of  the  Egyptian 
commerce  lands.  Cairo,  the  largest  city  of  Africa,  derives 
its  importance  from  its  position  at  the  head  of  the  Nile 
delta.  It  is  a  favorite  winter-resort.  Port  Said  and  Suez 
are  the  terminal  ports  of  the  Suez  Canal ;  their  commerce 
is  mainly  the  transit  trade  of  the  canal. 

Other  Independent  States.— Most  of  the  independent 
states  of  Africa  are  in  a  condition  of  barbarism  and  have 
but  little  importance  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  Abyssinia 
has  the  natural  advantages  of  gold,  iron,  pasture-lands,  and 
forestry,  and  the  possibilities  of  cotton  cultivation.  Valu- 
able mining  concessions  have  been  granted  to  foreign  com- 
panies. Ivory,  coffee,  and  gold  are  shipped  to  India  in 
exchange  for  textiles.  A  railway  from  the  coast  is  under 
construction,  but  all  the  traffic  is  carried  by  mule-trains, 
mainly  to  Harrar. 

Morocco  has  an  admirable  strategic  position  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  is  most  likely,  in  time, 
to  become  a  possession  of  Spain.  There  are  exported, 
mainly  to  Great  Britain,  beans,  almonds,  goat-skins,  and 


AFRICA  385 

wool.  The  goat-skins  are  sumac-tanned  and  are  still  used 
in  making  the  best  book-binding  leather.  Only  a  small 
part  of  the  so-called  Morocco  leather  of  commerce  is  genu- 
ine. There  are  no  railways;  caravan  routes  from  the 
Sahara  cross  the  country.  Tangier  and  one  or  two  other 
ports  are  open  to  foreign  trade.  Coal-oil  is  the  only  im- 
port from  the  United  States. 

The  state  of  Liberia  was  established  for  the  benefit  of 
freed  slaves  from  the  United  States.  The  products  are 
those  of  tropical  Africa,  including  caoutchouc.  Coffee  cul- 
tivation is  extensively  carried  on,  and  coffee  is  the  leading 
export.     Monrovia  is  the  chief  centre  of  trade. 

North  African  Possessions. — French  influence  is  para- 
mount in  northern  Africa.  Algeria  aud  Tunis  are  both 
French  colonies,  and  the  caravan  trade  of  the  Sahara  is 
generally  tributary  to  French  trade.  The  region  known 
as  the  Tell,  a  strip  between  the  coast  and  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, is  the  chief  agricultural  region,  and  the  products  are 
similar  to  those  on  the  other  side  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  The  ordinary  grains  are  grown  for  home  consump- 
tion, but  the  macaroni  wheat  crop  is  manufactured  into 
macaroni  paste  for  export.  The  fruit-crop,  especially  the 
olive,  date,  and  grape,  and  their  products,  is  exported. 

Esparto  grass,  for  making  paper,  was  formerly  an  im- 
portant export,  but  the  increasing  use  of  wood-pulp  for 
this  purpose  has  had  the  effect  of  increasing  the  grazing 
area,  and  therefore  the  wool-crop.  Date-palms  grow  in 
great  profusion,  and  the  excess  forms  an  important  export, 
going  to  nearly  every  part  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  A  large  part  of  the  crop,  however,  is  consumed  by 
the  Arabs.  Sumac-tanned  goat-skins,  for  book-binding 
leather,  are  also  exported. 

The  colonies  must  import  coal.  Manufactures  are  there- 
fore restricted  to  the  preparation  of  the  fruit  and  food 


386  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

products.  Sponges  are  an  important  product.  Bailways 
provide  the  necessary  transportation  for  the  crops.  Algiers, 
the  metropolis,  is  a  finely  built  city  and  a  favorite  winter- 
resort.  Oran  is  the  shipping-port  for  grain  and  esparto 
grass.     Biskra  is  the  market  for  dates. 

The  caravan  trade  of  northern  Africa  is  considerable, 
and  the  greater  part  converges  at  Tripoli,  to  which  not  far 
from  ten  thousand  camel-loads  of  merchandise  are  brought 
annually.  This  trade  is  carried  on  mainly  by  the  Arabs, 
who  cover  the  region  from  Timbuctu  to  Lake  Chad.  They 
bring  ivory,  ostrich  feathers,  gold,  goat-skins,  and  slaves. 
In  return  they  carry  cloth,  fire-arms,  ammunition,  and 
various  commodities  to  the  negro  villages  of  the  Sudan. 
The  district  is  a  possession  of  Turkey.  Its  chief  exports 
are  esparto  grass,  sponges,  and  dye-stuffs. 

Central  Africa. — Central  Africa  is  divided  among  the 
chief  European  powers.  Great  Britain  and  Germany  di- 
vide the  lake-region  and  the  Zanzibar  coast.  On  the  Gui- 
nea coast  the  French  are  an  additional  factor.  The  trade 
of  these  regions  consists  of  an  exchange  of  tropical  prod- 
ucts— palm-oil,  rubber,  ebony,  camwood,  ivory,  and  hides — 
for  cloth,  tobacco,  fire-arms,  beads  and  trinkets,  and  pre- 
served foods.  Most  of  this  trade  is  carried  on  by  com- 
panies holding  royal  charters. 

The  Kongo  State  is  a  semi-official  corporation  of  this 
character,  the  King  of  the  Belgians  being  its  chief  execu- 
tive officer.  The  active  administration  is  carried  on  by 
agents  of  the  company.  The  chief  of  each  tribe  or  village 
is  required,  under  penalty,  to  furnish  a  certain  quota  of 
crude  rubber  and  other  products ;  and  between  the  agent 
and  the  Arab  slave-driver  the  natives  have  little  to  choose. 

The  Kongo  Kiver  is  the  outlet  of  the  state,  and  to  facili- 
tate the  transportation  of  the  products,  railways  have  been 
built,  or  are  under  construction,  around  the  rapids.     This 


AFRICA  387 

region  is  about  the  only  remaining  source  of  elephant 
ivory,  but  most  of  the  supply  consists  of  the  tusks  of  ani- 
mals long  since  dead.  A  fleet  of  steamboats  carries  the 
commercial  products  to  the  coast.  Stanley  Pool,  at  the 
head  of  the  rapids,  is  the  chief  depot  for  collection.  Ocean 
steamships  ascend  the  river  to  a  point  above  Boma,  the 
place  of  administration. 

Nigeria  and  Ashanti  are  British  possessions  on  the  Gui- 
nea coast,*  having  a  trading  company  organization.  Sierra 
Leone  is  an  organized  colony,  a  product  of  which  is  the 
kola-nut.  British  East  Africa  is  important  for  strategic 
purposes,  inasmuch  as  it  includes  the  upper  Nile  basin,  a 
territory  sometimes  known  as  the  Egyptian  Sudan.  Akra 
is  the  trading  port  of  Nigeria,  and  Khartum  of  the  upper 
Nile  Valley.     Zanzibar  is  the  metropolis  of  the  east  coast. 

The  French  possessions  include  a  large  territory  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Kongo,  the  western  part  of  the  Sahara, 
and  the  islands  of  Madagascar  and  Reunion.  In  Ger- 
man East  Africa  the  commercial  development  has  been 
substantial,  and  large  plantations  for  the  cultivation  of 
tropical  products  are  in  operation.  A  railway  from  the 
coast  to  the  lake-district  is  under  construction.  3Iombasa 
is  its  commercial  outlet. 

The  Italians  have  nominal  possession  of  a  territory  fac- 
ing the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  and  also  of  the  peninsula 
of  Guardafui.  Their  actual  possession,  however,  is  re- 
stricted to  the  island  and  trading-post  of  Massawa.  Their 
attempts  to  conquer  Abyssinia  have  been  unsuccessful. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  South  African  Colonies. 
— Up  to  the  time  of  the  Suez  Canal,  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
was  a  sort  of  half-way  house  between  British  ports  and 

*  This  region  is  also  known  as  the  Gold  Coast.  Formerly  it  furnished 
the  chief  British  supply  of  gold,  and  the  gold  coin  known  as  the  "  guinea" 
received  its  name  from  this  circumstance. 


388  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

India,  and  this  position  made  it  commercially  important. 
Even  at  the  present  time  more  than  fifteen  hundred  ves- 
sels, many  of  them  in  the  Indian  Ocean  trade,  call  at  the 
chief  port  of  the  colony  every  year. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry  of  these  colonies,  though 
not  the  one  yielding  the  greatest  returns.  Enough  wheat, 
maize  (or  "  mealies  "),  and  fruit  are  grown  for  home  con- 
sumption, but  the  climate  is  too  arid  for  any  excess  of 
bread-stuffs.  The  aridity  is  a  resource,  however,  in  the 
matter  of  wool,  the  superior  quality  of  which  is  due  largely 
to  the  deficient  rainfall.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  whole 
country  is  a  great  grazing  veldt  ;  wool,  a  very  fine  quality  of 
Angora  mohair,  hides,  and  cattle  products  are  exports. 

From  December  to  March  the  fruits  ripen,  and  these, 
especially  the  grapes,  are  carried  in  cold-storage  vessels  to 
British  and  other  European  ports.  The  wine  is  like- 
wise of  excellent  quality  and  is  becoming  an  export  of 
great  value.  Both  the  fruit  and  the  wine  are  similar  to 
those  of  Australia  and  California. 

The  business  of  ostrich  farming  is  in  the  hands  of  several 
large  companies,  and,  next  to  the  wool-crop,  ostrich  plumes 
are  the  leading  product.  There  are  about  a  quarter  of  a 
million  birds,  and  each  produces  about  one  pound  of  feath- 
ers. The  ordinary  quality  of  plumes  varies  from  five  to 
ten  dollars  a  pound  ;  very  choice  plumes  command  as 
much  as  two  hundred  dollars  a  pound.  London  is  the 
chief  market  for  them,  but  most  of  them  sooner  or  later 
find  their  way  to  the  milliners  of  the  great  cities. 

The  diamond -mines  of  Griqualand  West  furnish  prac- 
tically the  whole  of  the  world's  supply.  The  mines  are 
operated  on  a  most  thorough  business  system,  and  the 
output  of  rough  stones  is  carefully  regulated  to  meet  the 
demand.  All  wholesale  dealers  know  the  output  from 
year  to  year,  and  no  more  stones  are  put  upon  the  market 


AFRICA  389 

than  the  number  required  to  meet  the  demand.  All  the 
Kimberley  mines  are  now  consolidated  under  one  com- 
pany. The  yearly  output  does  not  vary  much  from 
twenty  million  dollars'  worth  of  stones.  The  stones  are 
marketed  from  Kimberley,  but  London  dealers  buy  most 
of  them. 

The  mines  that  for  several  years  produced  more  gold 
than  any  others  in  existence  are  in  the  Transvaal.*  Other 
undeveloped  mines  in  the  territory  of  Rhodesia  are  known 
to  be  extremely  rich  in  precious  metals  ;  indeed,  there  is 
much  evidence  that  the  famous  mines  of  Ophir  were  in  this 
region.     Copper  ore  is  an  important  export. 

The  industries  of  Natal  colony  do  not  differ  materially 
from  those  of  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  rainfall  is  suffi- 
cient for  the  growing  of  sugar-cane,  and  sugar  is  an  im- 
portant export  to  the  mother-country.  The  colony  has 
productive  coal-mines,  and  these  are  destined  to  become 
an  important  resource. 

The  home  government  has  encouraged  railway  building, 
and  a  trunk  line  through  Rhodesia  affords  an  outlet  to  the 
ports  of  the  south  coast.  It  is  the  policy  of  the  mother- 
country  to  extend  this  road  along  the  lake-region  and  the 
Nile  Valley  (known  as  the  "  Great  Rift ")  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  This  plan  when  carried  out  will  give  Great 
Britain  a  practical  control  of  the  trade  of  eastern  Africa. 
The  imports  are  mainly  textiles,  machinery,  and  steel 
wares. 

Cape  Town  is  the  most  important  centre  of  trade  in 
South  Africa.  A  considerable  trade,  however,  is  carried 
on  at  Port  Elizabeth  and  at  Durban,  the  port  of  Natal. 

*  This  region  was  formerly  comprised  in  the  Boer  republics,  Orange 
Free  State  and  South  African  Republic.  In  1899  they  declared  war 
against  Great  Britain,  with  the  result  that  they  were  defeated  and  an- 
nexed to  that  country — the  former  as  Orange  Colony,  the  latter  as 
Transvaal  Colony. 


390  COMMERCIAL  GEOGRAPHY 

Kimberley  is  the  seat  of  the  diamond-mining  interests,  and 
Johannesberg  of  the  gold-mines. 

Germany  and  Portugal  divide  the  southwest  coast. 
Walfisch  Bay  is  the  outlet  of  the  former.  Portuguese 
East  Africa  is  an  outlet  for  the  trade  of  the  Transvaal 
region,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  The  port 
Lourenco  Marquez  has  a  fine  harbor. 

QUESTIONS  FOR   DISCUSSION 

Has  the  partition  of  Africa  been  an  advantage  or  a  disadvan- 
tage to  the  native  races  of  the  continent  ? 

What  advantages  will  accrue  to  Great  Britain  from  the  Cape 
to  Cairo  railway  ? 

Compare  the  basin  of  the  Kongo  with  that  of  the  Amazon  with 
respect  to  climate,  products,  and  civilization. 

From  Commercial  Africa  prepare  a  list  of  the  exports  and 
imports  between  the  United  States  and  the  various  African 
countries. 

FOR   COLLATERAL  READING  AND   REFERENCE 

Statesman's  Year-Book. 
Commercial  Africa — pp.  3679  and  following. 
From  a  cyclopcedia  read  the  following  topics :   Ivory,   Suez 
Canal,  Gibraltar,  Livingstone,  Diamonds,  Canary  Islands. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
OCEANIA 

Oceania,  the  island  division  of  the  world,  includes  Aus- 
tralasia and  the  great  groups  of  islands  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Some  of  the  larger  islands  are  regions  of  great 
productivity ;  others  are  important  as  coaling-stations ; 
still  others  have  positions  of  great  strategic  value. 

When  it  is  considered  that  more  than  half  the  people 
in  the  world  live  on  the  slopes  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and 
that  they  depend  on  the  metal-working  and  manufactur- 
ing people  of  the  Atlantic  slopes  for  clothing  and  com- 
modities, it  is  apparent  that  the  commerce  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  must  reach  enormous  proportions. 

For  this  reason  the  various  island  groups  of  Oceania 
have  been  acquired  by  Europeans,  and  from  the  moment 
of  their  occupation  their  commercial  development  began. 
The  great  majority  of  these  groups  are  within  the  limits  of 
the  sago-palm,  bread-fruit,  cocoanut,  and  banana,  and  these 
yield  not  only  the  food-stuffs  of  the  native  people,  but  the 
export  products  as  well.  Copra,  or  dried  cocoanut  meat, 
is  the  general  export.  It  is  marketed  in  Marseille,  Lon- 
don, and  San  Francisco.  Sago  is  prepared  from  the  pith 
of  a  species  of  palm.  Considerable  quantities  are  also 
exported,  and  it  is  used  as  a  table  delicacy.  The  banana 
is  the  food-stuff  upon  which  many  millions  of  people  must 
depend.  In  spite  of  their  small  aggregate  area,  the  food- 
producing  power  of  these  islands  is  very  great.* 

*  It  is  estimated  that  twenty-two  acres  of  land  are  necessary  to  sustain 
one  adult  on  fresh  meat.  The  same  area  of  wheat  would  feed  forty-two 
people;  of  oats  about  eighty-five  people;  of  maize,  potatoes,  and  rice, 
one  hundred  and  seventy  people.  But  twenty-two  acres  planted  with 
bread-fruit  or  bananas  will  support  about  six  thousand. 

391 


392  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

On  account  of  its  central  position,  Honolulu,  the  capital 
and  chief  port  of  Hawaii,  is  the  most  important  mid-ocean 
station  of  the  Pacific.  It  is  almost  in  the  direct  line  of 
trafiic  between  the  Pacific  ports  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  of  Australia,  Japan, 
and  China  on  the  other.  It  is  also  in  the  route  of  vessels 
that  may  hereafter  use  the  American  isthmian  canal  in 
going  between  European  and  Asian  ports. 

In  the  cultivation  of  export  products  native  Malay  labor 
is  almost  always  employed,  inasmuch  as  Europeans  cannot 
bear  out-of-door  labor  in  the  tropics.  The  natives  are 
generally  known  as  "  Kanakas,"  and  there  is  not  a  little 
illicit  traffic  in  their  labor.  Chinese  and  Japanese  coolies 
are  also  employed  as  laborers. 

The  Commonwealth  of  Australia.  —  The  common- 
wealth of  Australia  consists  of  the  various  states  of  Aus- 
tralia together  with  Tasmania.  Their  position  corresponds 
very  closely  to  that  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  and 
the  climate  and  products  are  not  unlike.  A  considerable 
part  of  Australia  is  a  desert,  and  a  large  area  is  too  arid  for 
the  production  of  bread-stuffs ;  the  eastern  coast,  however, 
receives  abundant  rains. 

Australia  produces  nearly  one-third  of  the  wool-clip  of 
the  world.  On  account  of  the  climate,  the  quality  of  the 
wool,  much  of  it  merino,  is  excellent.  More  than  half  the 
clip  comes  from  New  South  Wales.  Two-thirds  of  the 
wool  goes  to  Great  Britain  to  be  manufactured  ;  nearly  all 
the  rest  is  purchased  by  France,  Germany,  and  Belgium. 
Less  than  two  per  cent,  is  sold  to  the  United  States. 

Since  the  introduction  of  cold-storage  plants  in  steam- 
ships, Australia  has  become  a  heavy  exporter  of  meat. 
Areas  long  unproductive  are  now  cattle-ranges;  mutton 
constitutes  the  heaviest  shipment.  Inasmuch  as  the  trans- 
portation is  almost  wholly  by  water,  the  cost  is  very  light, 


394 


COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 


and  the  mutton  can  be  sold  to  London  dealers  at  less  than 
four  cents  per  pound. 

Wheat  is  grown  mainly  for  home  consumption.  Grapes 
for  wine  and  for  raisins  are  good-paying  crops  in  Victoria 
and  New  South  Wales.  Both  products  find  a  ready  market 
in  Great  Britain.  Australian  claret  is  a  strong  competi- 
tor of  California  claret  for  public  favor,  and  the  two  are 


Longitude    East  lWirom  Greenwich  140°  H°lm 


i.  mg.  JgO° 


similar  in  character.  Cane-sugar  is  grown  in  the  moist 
regions  of  Queensland;  it  is  the  chief  supply  of  the  com- 
monwealth and  the  neighboring  islands.  The  forests  pro- 
duce an  abundance  of  hard  woods,  but  practically  no  build- 
ing-timber. Jarrah  wood  paving-blocks  are  an  important 
export.  British  Columbia,  Washington,  and  Oregon  sup- 
ply much  of  the  building-timber. 

Gold  has  been  the  chief  mineral  product  since  the  settle- 


OCEANIA  395 

ment  of  the  country.  The  mints  convert  the  metal  into 
coin.  As  a  rule  the  value  of  the  exports  exceeds  that  of 
the  imports,  and  the  excess  swells  the  amount  of  metal 
exported.  The  most  productive  mines  are  in  the  district 
of  Ballarat.  Coal  is  abundant  on  the  east  coast,  and  a 
considerable  part  is  sold  to  California,  and  more  to  Asian 
ports.     Tin  is  extensively  mined  in  Tasmania. 

More  than  fifteen  thousand  miles  of  railway  have  been 
built  to  carry  the  traffic  of  the  country.  Most  of  them 
were  built  by  private  corporations,  but  on  account  of  finan- 
cial difficulties  and  poor  service  they  were  acquired  by  the 
government.     The  policy  proved  a  wise  one. 

Great  Britain  encourages  the  trade  of  her  colonies,  and 
gets  about  three-fourths  of  the  traffic  of  the  commonwealth, 
the  imports  being  manufactured  goods.  Of  the  foreign 
trade  the  United  States  has  about  half,  nearly  all  of  which 
is  landed  at  San  Francisco  and  Puget  Sound.  Wool,  cat- 
tle products,  and  coal  are  exported  to  the  United  States, 
and  the  latter  sends  to  Australia  structural  steel — mainly 
rails — printing-paper,  and  coal-oil. 

Melbourne  is  the  largest  city.  Sydney  is  the  port  at 
which  most  of  the  ocean  trade  is  landed.  Brisbane,  main- 
ly a  coal  and  a  wool  market,  is  connected  with  British 
Columbia  by  an  ocean  cable.  Steamships  by  way  of  the 
Suez  Canal  generally  call  at  Perth  and  Adelaide.  Hobart 
and  Launcesfown  are  the  markets  of  Tasmania. 

New  Zealand. — This  colony  is  one  of  the  most  pros- 
perous and  best  administered  states  in  existence.  The 
cultivable  lands  produce  enough  wheat  for  home  use,  and 
an  excess  for  export.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  the  chief  re- 
source, however,  and  pretty  nearly  everything — meat,  hides, 
wool,  horn,  and  bones — is  exported.  Dairy  products  are 
not  forgotten,  and  under  the  management  of  an  association, 
these  are  of  the  best  quality. 


396  COMMERCIAL   GEOGRAPHY 

New  Zealand  flax  (Phormium  teriax),  sl  kind  of  marsh 
hemp,  yields  a  fibre  used  in  making  cordage.  The  kauri 
pine  furnishes  the  chief  supply  of  lumber.  A  fossil  kauri 
gum  is  collected  for  export ;  it  makes  a  varnish  almost 
equal  to  Japanese  lacquer.  Gold  is  mined,  and  there  being 
no  mint,  all  the  bullion  is  exported.  The  only  manufact- 
ures are  those  which  are  connected  with  the  meat  export 
and  the  dairy  industry.  The  exports  noted  more  than  pay 
for  the  manufactured  goods.  Most  of  the  trade  is  carried 
on  with  Great  Britain.  Wellington,  the  capital,  and  Auck- 
land are  the  centres  of  trade. 

New  Guinea. — This  island,  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
world,  is  somewhat  larger  than  the  State  of  Texas,  or  about 
one-third  larger  than  Germany  or  France.  The  gold-mines 
first  led  to  the  exploration  and  settlement  of  the  island,  but 
it  was  soon  apparent  that  the  agricultural  resources  were 
even  more  valuable,  and  it  was  divided  among  the  British, 
Germans,  and  Dutch. 

The  western  part  of  the  island  is  distinctly  Asian  in  char- 
acter; the  eastern  and  southern  parts  resemble  Australia. 
Coffee,  rice,  and  tobacco  plantations  have  been  established 
in  the  former;  grazing  is  the  chief  industry  in  the  latter. 
Ebony  and  bamboo  are  among  the  forest  products. 

British  Possessions. — The  Fiji  Islands  are  among  the 
most  important  British  possessions.  They  number  about 
eighty  habitable  and  twice  as  many  small  islands.  Sugar 
is  the  chief  export  product,  and  it  goes  mainly  to  Australia 
and  New  Zealand.  Cocoanuts  are  also  a  large  item  of  ex- 
port trade.     Suva  is  the  chief  trading-port. 

The  Tonga  Islands  are  nominally  independent,  but  are 
practically  a  British  protectorate.  Among  other  British 
possessions  are  Cook,  Gilbert,  and  Ellice  archipelagoes,  and 
Pitcairn  Island. 

German  Possessions. — The  Samoa  Islands  are   per- 


OCEANIA  397 

haps  the  most  important  German  possession,  and  Ger- 
man planters  have  made  them  highly  productive.  They 
were  formerly  held  under  a  community-ot'-interest  plan  by 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the  United  States.  A  joint 
commission  awarded  the  greater  part  of  the  territory  to 
Germany.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  products,  pineap- 
ples and  limes  are  exported.  Most  of  the  trade  is  carried 
on  by  way  of  Australia.     Apia  is  the  trading-port. 

Bismarck  Archipelago,  and  the  Solomon,  Marshall,  and 
Caroline  groups  have  also  been  acquired  by  Germany.  The 
last  named  was  purchased  from  Spain  at  the  close  of  the 
Spanish- American  War. 

French  Possessions. — New  Caledonia,  together  with 
Loyalty  Islands,  Fortuna,  and  the  New  Hebrides  group, 
have  great  wealth  in  the  matter  of  resources.  New  Cale- 
donia, a  penal  colony,  has  productive  mines  of  chrome  iron 
ore  and  copper.  It  is  the  source  of  a  considerable  supply 
of  nickel  and  cobalt.  A  railway  to  the  coast  has  been  built 
for  the  carriage  of  these  products. 

Tahiti  is  the  principal  island  of  the  Society  group,  and 
under  the  missions  long  established  there,  the  natives  have 
become  civilized.  In  addition  to  the  usual  trade,  sugar  and 
mother-of-pearl  are  important  exports. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   DISCUSSION 

How  will  the  commerce  of  the  Pacific  be  changed  by  the  con- 
struction of  an  isthmian  canal  ? 

What  has  been  the  effect  of  the  Australian  wool-clip  on  the 
cloth-making  industry  of  England  and  Germany? 

How  will  the  acquisition  of  Hawaii  and  the  Philippine  Islands 
affect  the  commerce  of  the  United  States  ? 

From  Commercial  Australia  find  the  trade  of  the  United  States 
with  the  Commonwealth. 

FOR   COLLATERAL   READING  AND   REFERENCE 
From  a  cyclopaedia  read  the  history  of  Australia  as  a  convict 
colony. 

Commercial  Australia. 


APPENDIX 

TRADE    OF    THE   PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES    OF  THE   WORLD  AT 
THE    BEGINNING    OF   THE    TWENTIETH    CENTURY 


Country 


Argentina 

Australia 

Austria-Hungary. . 

Belgium 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Canada 

Chile 

China 

Colombia 

Cuba 

Denmark 

Ecuador. 

Egypt.  - 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

India,  British 

India,  Dutch 

India.  French 

Italy  

Japan  

Mexico   . . . 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Peru 

Philippine  Islands 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey 

United  Kingdom  . 
United  States.  .  . . 

Uruguay  

Venezuela 


Imports 


#110,000,000 

201,000,000 

335,486,000 

428,651,000 

5,845,000 

97,330,000 

181,238,000 

46,916,000 

203,421,000 

10,695,000 

66,584,000 

111,542,000 

6,541,000 

75,366,000 

843,255,000 

1,290,254,000 

26,782,000 

264,318,000 

67,755,000 

36,576,000 

331,668,000 

127,397,000 

64,036,000 

815,442,000 

83,255,000 

11,276,000 

30,279,000 

62,497,000 

41,878,000 

269,493,000 

161,867,000 

143,363,000 

202.651,000 

103,110,000 

2,540,265,000 

903,321,000 

24,497,000 

8,457,000 


Exports 


Sells  to  U.  S. 


$161,850,000 

224,000,000 

383,748,000 

352,850,000 

15,618,000 

165,461,000 

177,443,000 

61,201,000 

124,528,000 

18,487,000 

63,278,000 

75,549,000 

7,509,000 

77,754,000 

774,497,000 

1,054,685,000 

18,100,000 

392,025,000 

100,632,000 

30,513,000 

265,270,000 

124,209,000 

77,583,000 

695,763,000 

43,616,000 

21,890,000 

23,215,000 

30,546,000 

54,041,000 

375,276,000 

129,399,000 

104,878,000 

161,458,000 

64,876,000 

1,362,729,000 

1,355,482,000 

28,674,000 

17,962,000 

398 


$10,000,000 

5,263,000 

10,000,000 

14,920,000 

22 

64,914,000 

42,482,000 

7,474,000 

18,126,000 

4,811,000 

46,664,000 

797,000 

1,578,000 

8,867,000 

81,315,000 

99,970,000 

1,447,000 

47,172,000 

32,309,000 


27,631,000 
36,855,000 
17,273,000 
17,273,000 


Buys  from  U.  S. 


2,911,000 

4,421,000 

3,642,000 

101,000 

7,236,000 

7,041,000 

4,370,000 

16,035,000 

2,437,000 

155,292,000 


1,975,000 
6,610,000 


#11,000,000 

28,164,000 

6,844,000 

51,444,000 

120,000 

11,517,000 

105,790,000 

4,507,000 

18,176,000 

2,924,000 

27,007,000 

15,500,000 

1,590,000 

1,321,000 

78,406,000 

184,679,000 

286,000 

5,647,000 

1,653,000 

118,000 

34,046,000 

21,163,000 

83,722,000 

83,722,000 


2,312,000 

4,027,000 

4,454,000 

31,000 

6,506,000 

16,786,000 

11,521,000 

233,000 

184,000 

598,767,000 


1,481,000 
2,737,000 


INDEX 


Acapulco,  269 

Acre,  381 

Activities  classified,  4 

Adams,  220 

Aden,  354 

Adjustment  to  environment,  86 

Afghanistan,  355 

Alaska,  254 

Alberta,  265 

Alexandria,  384 

Alfa,  124 

Algeria,  385 

Alpaca,  111,  115 

Altitude,  effects  of,  32 

Aluminium,  179 

Amazon  River,  53 

Amber,  146 

Ambergris,  204 

American  Indians,  86 

Amritsar,  362 

Amsterdam,  318 

Anaconda,  250 

Anchovy,  207 

Angora  wool,  115 

Anthracite  coal,  224 

Appalachian  region,  222 

Arabia,  354 

Argentina,  291 

Arid  region  of  U.  S.,  240 

Arkwright,  108 

Asian  Rivers,  navigation  of,  53 

Asphalt,  157 

Assiniboia,  265 

Astrakhan,  347 

Athens,  341 

Atlanta,  239 

Atlantic  coastplain,  213,  221 

Attar-of-roses,  338 

Australia,  392 

Austria- Hungary,  335 


Bagdad,  354 
Baku,  347,  348 

Baltimore,  217 

Baluchistan,  357 

Banca,  181,  364 

Barbados,  273 

Barley,  101 

Barmen-Elberfeld,  308 

Batavia,  364 

Bauxite,  179 

Beef,  exports  of  U.  S.,  244 

Beet  sugar,  186,  303,  321 

Beginnings  of  cities,  82 

Belgium,  313 

Belgrade,  341 

Bengal,  361 

Benzine,  156 

Bergen,  312 

Berlin,  308 

Bermuda,  273 

Bessemer-steel  boilers,  63 

Big  tree,  198 

Billiton,  364 

Birmingham,  Ala.,  165,  225 

Birmingham,  Eng. ,  303 

Bismarck  Archipelago,  397 

Black  walnut,  199 

Blende,  182 

Bluefish,  206 

Boers,  86 

Bogota,  277 

Bohemian  glass,  336 

Boise  City,  250 

Bokhara,  347 

Bolivia,  280 

Bombay,  362 

Bosnia,  337 

Boston,  215 

Boxwood,  200 

Brass,  178 


400 


INDEX 


Brazil,  288 

nuts,  289 
Breakfast,  travels  of  a,  1 
Bremen,  308 
Brenner  Pass,  66 
Brick  tea,  134 
Bridgeport,  221 
British  Columbia,  265 

India,  358 
Bronze  Age,  181 
Brussels,  316 
Budapest,  337 
Buenos  Aires,  293 
Buffalo,  225 
Bulgaria,  338 
Burlington,  237 
Burma,  British,  362 
Burr  clover,  34 
Butte,  248 

Cacao,  134 

Cairo,  384 

Calcutta,  123 

California  fruits,  251 

Callao,  279 

Camel's  hair,  116 

Camphor,  378 

Canada,  261 

Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  263 

Canal,  Chesapeake  &  Ohio,  56 

Chicago  ship,  56 

Erie,  55 

Grand,  370 

Kaiser  Wilhelm,  57 

Ludwig,  337 

Manchester,  57 

Nicaragua,  59,  270 

Nord  Holland,  57,  318 

Panama,  58 

Rideau,  54 

St.  Mary's  Falls,  228,  263 

Suez,  57 

Weliand,  54,  263 
Canons,  effects  of,  18 
Canton,  374 
Caoutchouc,  141 
Capacity  of  locomotives,  63,  64 
Cape  Nome,  254 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  387 
Cape  Town,  389 


Caravan  tea,  134 
Carpet  wools,  112 
Cashmere  shawls,  363 
Cattle-growing,  240 
Cavite,  258 
Cereals,  88 
Charleston,  218 
Cheviot,  112 
Cheyenne,  244 
Chicago,  84,  228,  230,  234 
Chicago  River,  228 
Chicory,  131 
Chile,  281 

Chinook  winds,  261 
Chocolate,  136 
Cigars,  manufacture  of,  137 
Cincinnati,  236 
Cities,  growth  of,  83 
Clearing-houses,  215 
Cleveland,  225,  230 
Climate,  29 
Clipper  ship,  44 
Cloth,  antiquity  of,  105 
Coal,  148,  257,  258,  264,  265,  268,  298, 
323,  333,  344,  365,  368,  379 

areas  of  the  world,  147 

prices  of,  in  U.  S.,  149 

tar  products,  153 
Coast  commerce  of  U.  S. ,  222 
Coastplains,  22 
Coca,  278 
Cocoa,  134 
Cocoon  silk,  119 
Cod  fisheries,  204 
Coffee,  127,  271,  277,  290 
Coke,  151 
Colombia,  275 
Columbus,  voyages  of,  11 
Commerce  in  Western  Europe,  13 
Communal  life,  81,  344 
Competition  and  pools,  67 
Constantinople,  340 
Copal,  146 
Copenhagen,  313 
Copper,  159, 162,  177,  248,  266,  279,  344, 

379 
Cordage,  122 
Corn,  98,  232 
Corn,  oil  of,  100 
Cotton,  106,  238,  269,  289,  302,  306, 326 


INDEX 


401 


Cotton,  Egyptian,  109,  383 

gin,  109 

Indian,  360 

Peruvian,  108,  278 

sea  island,  108 
Cotton  crop,  distribution  of,  239 
Creosote,  145 
Cripple  Creek,  248 
Crompton,  108 
Crusades,  wars  of,  8 
Cuba,  271 

bast,  124 
Currant  grapes,  341 

Da  Gama,  voyage  of,  11 
Dammar,  146 
Davenport,  237 
Deadwood,  248 
Demerara,  288 
Denmark,  312 
Denver,  248 
Detroit,  230 
Diamonds,  388 
Dias,  voyage  of,  11 
Differentials,  71,  73 
Divi-divi,  285 
Division  of  industries,  41 
Dubuque,  237 
Dutch  East  Indies,  364 
standards,  188 

Eastern  Turkestan,  376 

Ebony,  200 

Economic  regions  of  U.  S. ,  213 

Ecuador,  279 

Egypt,  381 

Electric  railways,  76 

Eminent  domain,  76 

Esparto  grass,  124,  385 

Exchange  of  products,  5 

Fairs,  346 

Fall  line,  53,  221 

Fall  River,  220 

Felt  hats,  209 

Fertility  of  irrigated  regions,  33 

Feudalism,  7 

Fiji  Islands,  396 

Fisheries,  266 

Fish  hatcheries,  207 


Flax,  120,  300,  314,  343 

New  Zealand,  124 
Forced  draught,  63 
Forest  areas,  193,  261,  288,  299,  310 
Fort  Dearborn,  228 
France,  320 
Freight  rates,  63,  69 
French  India,  365 

Galveston,  238 

Gasoline,  156 

Geneva,  334 

German  Empire,  303 

Ghent,  314,  316 

Glucose,  100, 191 

Gold,  166,  172,  248,  264,  268,  286,  344, 

379,  395 
Grain  elevators,  94 
Grape  industry  in  New  York,  36 
Graphite,  153 
Grasses,  88 
Great  Britain,  295 
Great  Central  Plain,  22 
Great  Lakes,  227 
Great  Salt  Lake,  247 
Greece,  340 
Griqualand  West,  388 
Guam,  258 
Guatemala,  270 
Guayaquil,  280 
Guiana,  286 
Gulf  coast,  237 
Gums,  141 
Gutta-percha.  144 

Halibut,  256 
Halifax,  264 
Hamburg,  308 
Hamilton,  265 
Hanse  League,  13 
Harbors,  24,  47,  84 
Hargreaves,  109 
Hartford,  221 
Havana,  272 

cigars,  137 
Hawaiian  Islands,  255 
Helena,  248 
Hematite,  163 
Hemp,  121,257 
Henequen,  122 


402 


INDEX 


Herodotus  quoted,  106 

Herring  fisheries,  205 

Herzegovina,  337 

Hickory,  199 

Hilo,  256 

Hodeida,  130 

Holland,  316 

Hongkong,  365,  374 

Honolulu,  256,  392 

Houston,  238 

Hudson's  Bay  Company,  208, 262 

Iloilo,  258 

Inclination  of  axis,  36 

Indianapolis,  237 

Inland  waters,  50 

Intermontane  valleys,  18 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  76 

Iodine,  282 

Iquique,  283 

Iran  plateau,  349 

Ireland,  265 

Irkutsk,  347 

Iron,  162,  236,  300,  323 

galvanized,  182 

ore,  163, 166,  300,  306,  311,  315,  323 
Iron  Gate,  338 
Italy,  325 

Jade,  159 

Japan,  375 

Jarrah,  200,  394 

Java,  364 

Joint  tariff  associations,  72 

Jute,  122,  360 

Kabue,  356 

Kansas  City,  236 

Kashmir,  363 

Kauri,  146,396 

Kerosene,  154, 157 

Key  West  cigars,  137 

Khaibar  Pass,  356 

Khiva,  347 

Kiakhta,  347 

Kiel,  309 

Kimberley,  389,  390 

Klondike  mines,  254 

Kongo  River,  navigation  of,  54 

Kongo  State,  386 


Korea,  376 
Kristiania,  311,  312 

Lac,  145 

Lacquer,  378 

La  Guaira,  286 

Lanolin,  114 

Lassa,  374 

Las  Vegas,  250 

Laudanum,  139 

Lawrence,  220 

Lead,  180 

Lead  pencils,  153 

Leadville,  248 

Leather  goods,  221 

Liechtenstein,  337 

Lignum  vitae,  200 

Lithographic  stone,  305 

Liverpool,  302 

Llama,  115 

Lobster  fisheries,  207 

Locomotive,  Central- Atlantic  type,  64 

Logwood,  201 

London,  302 

Los  Angeles,  157,  252 

Louisville,  237 

Lourenco  Marquez,  390 

Lowell,  220 

Lynn,  221 

Macao,  374 

Mackerel,  206 

Mackintosh,  143 

Madagascar,  387 

Madras,  363 

Magnetite,  163 

Maguey  sugar,  187 

Mahogany,  1 99 

Malay  States,  Federated,  363 

Manchester,  Eng.,  382 

Manchester,  N.  H,  220 

Manchuria,  376 

Mandalay,  362 

Manganese,  182 

Manila,  258 

hemp,  121 
Manitoba,  265 
Maple,  199 

sugar,  186 
Marco  Polo,  9 


INDEX 


403 


Martinique,  273 

Mate,  136 

Maverick,  240 

Melbourne,  395 

Memphis,  238 

Merino  wool,  111,  112 

Metals,  influence  of,  in  cities,  85 

Mexico,  267 

city  of,  269 
Milan,  328 
Mileage  books,  72 
Millet,  359 
Milwaukee,  228 
Mingo  Junction,  224 
Mining,  248 
Minneapolis,  230,  236 
Miquelon,  266 
Mississippi  River,  52 

valley,  230 
Mobile,  240 
Mocha  coffee,  130 
Mohair,  115 
Mohawk  valley,  220 
Molasses,  191 
Moline,  237 
Mongolia,  376 
Mont  Cenis  tunnel,  66 
Montenegro,  341 
Montreal,  264 
Morocco,  384 

Mountains,  contents  of,  17 
Moscow,  347 
Mulberry,  116 

Nagasaki,  380 

Nankeen  cotton,  108 

Naphtha,  154,  156 

Nashua,  220 

Natural  gas,  157 

Naval  stores,  145 

Nearchus,  107 

New  Brunswick,  264 

New  Caledonia,  397 

New  England  Plateau,  219 

New  Guinea,  396 

New  Haven,  221 

New  Orleans,  238 

New  York  City,  84,  214,  215,  230,  238, 

248 
New  Zealand,  395 


New  Zealand  flax,  123,  396 

Newfoundland,  266 

Nicaragua,  270 

Nickel,  182 

Nieuwchwang,  374 

Nigeria,  387 

Nile  River,  barrage  of,  383 

floods  of,  33 

navigation  of,  54 
Nitrate,  282 
Norfolk,  218 

Northern  Securities  Company,  227 
Norway,  310 
Nova  Scotia,  264 
Novgorod,  209 

Oak,  198 

Oats,  101 

Ocean  steamships,  45 

Odessa,  134,  347 

Ogden,  250 

Ohio  River,  52 

Oil  of  theobroma,  185 

Old  Government  Java,  129 

Oleo-resins,  141 

Omaha,  236 

Ontario,  265 

Opium,  139,  360 

Oregon  pine,  252 

Ottawa,  265 

Oyster  fisheries,  207 

Pacific  Coast  lowlands,  250 
Paddy,  103 

Pago  Pago  Harbor,  258 
Panama,  277 

hats,  123,  279 
Para,  291 
Paraffine,  157 
Paraguay,  293 

tea,  136 
Paris,  324 
Passes,  19 
Pearl  Harbor,  256 
Peking,  374 
Penang,  363 
Pepper,  365 
Persia,  354 
Persian  lamb,  208 
Peru,  278 


404 


INDEX 


Peshawur,  356,  362 
Petroleum,  154,  225, 344,  379 

jelly,  157 
Philadelphia,  216 
Philippine  Islands,  256 
Pine,  197 
Piraeus,  The,  341 
Pitch,  145 
Pittsburg,  166,  224 
Plains,  21 
Plaiting  straw,  124 
Plateaus,  21,  247. 
Ponce,  255 
Pools,  68 

Population,  distribution  of,  81 
Pork,  234 
Port  Arthur,  347 
Port  Huron,  230 
Port  Said,  384 
Port  wine,  330 
Portland,  Me.,  217 
Portland,  Ore.,  252 
Porto  Rico,  254 
Portugal,  328 
Pribilof  Islands,  208,  254 
Prince  Edward  Island,  264 
Providence,  221 
Puget  Sound,  228.  252 
Punjab,  362 
Pyrites,  164 

Quebec,  264 

city  of,  265 
Quicksilver,  180 

Rabbit  skins,  209 

Railway,  Canadian  Pacific,  263 

Chesapeake  &  Ohio,  71 

Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy,  68 

New  York  Central,  65,  67 

Northern  Pacific,  227 

Sind-Pishin,  356 

Southern,  71 

Tehuantepec,  269 

Transportation,  62 

Transsiberian,  345,  372 

Union  Pacific,  66 
Rainfall,  effects  of,  33 

deficiency  of,  33 
Ramie,  123 


Rangoon,  362 

Raw  silk,  .118 

Rebates,  71 

Redwood,  198,  252 

Resins,  141 

Rhodesia,  389 

Rice,  102,  359 

Richmond,  221 

Riga,  347 

Rio  Janeiro,  290 

River  navigation  in  Europe,  53 

valleys,  21 
Roads,  macadamized,  78 
Rock  Island,  237 
Rome,  327 
Rotterdam,  318 
Roumania,  338 

Rubber,  141,  275,  278,  281,  288 
Rug  wools,  114 
Rugs,  oriental,  351,  355 
Ruhr  iron  fields,  308 
Russia,  343 
Rye,  101,344 

Sacramento,  252 
Sahara,  385 
Saigon,  365 
Sailing  vessels,  47 
St.  Gotthard  tunnel,  66 
St.  Louis,  234 
St.  Paul,  230,  236 
St.  Petersburg,  346 
St.  Pierre,  266 
St.  Thomas,  273 
Salmon,  205 
Salonica,  340 
Samoa  Islands,  396 
San  Antonio,  239 
San  Francisco,  252 
San  Joaquin  valley,  250 
San  Juan,  P.  R. ,  255 
San  Pedro,  252 
Sandarach,  146 
Santa  Fe,  250 
Santiago,  283 
Santos,  290 
Saskatchewan,  265 
Savannah,  238 
Schooners,  44,  47 
Scranton,  224 


INDEX 


405 


Seal  fisheries,  208 

Seasonal  rains,  34 

Seattle,  84,  252 

Servia,  341 

Shad,  256 

Shanghai,  374 

Sheep-growing,  242 

Shell-lac,  145 

Shoe  manufacture,  221 

Siam,  364 

Siberia,  347 

Silk,  116,  323,  326,  368,  378 

Silver,  162,  176,  248,  268,  278,  304,  340 

Sind,  362 

Singapore,  363,  365 

Sioux  City,  236 

Sisal  hemp,  122,  267 

Skagway,  254 

Smyrna,  139,  353 

Sorghum,  187 

Sound  Valley,  250 

South  Bethlehem,  224 

South  Chicago,  225 

Southampton,  302 

Spain,  328 

Spermaceti,  204 

Spokane,  250 

Sponge,  208 

Steel,  Bessemer,  160, 169, 170,  222,  300, 

304,  345 
Stephenson,  63 
Stockholm,  312 
Stockton,  252 

Sugar,  185,  289,  303,  314,  318,  364 
Swash  channel,  50 
Sweden,  310 
Switzerland,  331 
Sydney,  395 

Tacoma,  252 

Tar,  145 

Tea,  131,  360,  368,  378 

Teak,  200,  365 

Temperate  zone,  activities  of,  32 

Textiles,  105 

Three-mile  fishing  limit,  262 

Thrown  silk,  118 

Tientsin,  134,  374 

Tin,  181,  364 

Tobacco,  136,  237,  240,  364,  383 


Tokio,  380 

Toledo,  225 

Topography  and  trade  routes,  24 

Toronto,  265 

Torrid  zone,  temperature  of,  30 

Tortilla,  Mexican,  100 

Trade  routes,  ancient,  8 

Transcaucasia,  348 

Transvaal,  389 

Treaty  ports,  373 

Trebizond,  351 

Triple-expansion  principle,  45 

Tripoli,  386 

Tunis,  385 

Turf  grass,  34 

Turkey-in-Europe,  339 

Turks  invade  Europe,  9 

Turpentine,  144 

Tussar  silk,  119 

Tutuila,  258 

Tweed,  112 

Uruguay,  294 

Valparaiso,  283 

Vancouver,  266 

Vanderbilt  locomotive  fire-box,  64 

Vanilla,  268 

Vaseline,  157 

Venezuela,  285 

Vicksburg,  238 

Vienna,  337 

Virginia  City,  250 

Vladivostok,  347 

Vuelta  Abajo,  137 

Vulcanized  rubber,  142 


Wai-wu-pu,  373 
Walla  Walla,  250 
Warsaw,  347 
Water-power,  84 
Waterproof  cloth,  143 
Welland  Canal,  263 
Wellington,  396 
Whale  fisheries,  203 
Wheat,  88,  96,  244,  344, 
White  Pass,  254 
Willamette  Valley,  250 
Winnipeg,  265 
Wood-pulp,  124 


>,367 


406  INDEX 

Wool,  110,  115, 117,  344,  251,  893,  297,       Youngstown,  166 
323  Yucatan,  267 

Yafa,  354  Zinc,  182 

Yokohama,  380  Zinfandel,  251 


YC  448% 


s 


54.1. J  73 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


